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Critical Infrastructures: Background, Policy, and Implementation [Updated August 7, 2003]
"The nation's health, wealth, and security rely on the production and distribution of certain goods and services. The array of physical assets, processes and organizations across which these goods and services move are called critical infrastructures (e.g. electricity, the power plants that generate it, and the electric grid upon which it is distributed). Computers and communications, themselves critical infrastructures, are increasingly tying these infrastructures together. There has been growing concern that this reliance on computers and computer networks raises the vulnerability of the nation's critical infrastructures to 'cyber' attacks. On November 22, 2002, Congress passed legislation creating a Department of Homeland Security. The Department consolidates into a single department a number of offices and agencies responsible for implementing various aspects of homeland security. One of the directorates created by the legislation is responsible for Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection. Issues include whether to segregate cyber protection from physical protection organizationally, mechanisms for sharing information shared between the government and the private sector, costs, the need to set priorities, and whether or not the federal government will need to employ more direct incentives to achieve an adequate level of protection by the private sector and states, and privacy versus protection. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.
2003-08-07
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Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act (P.L. 107-188): Provisions and Changes to Preexisting Law [Updated August 21, 2002]
"Last fall's anthrax attacks, though small in scale compared to the scenarios envisioned by bioterrorism experts, strained the public health system and raised concern that the nation is insufficiently prepared to respond to bioterrorist attacks. Improving public health preparedness and response capacity offers protection not only from bioterrorist attacks, but also from naturally occurring public health emergencies. On June 12, 2002, the President signed into law the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-188, H.R. 3448), which is intended to bolster the nation's ability to respond effectively to bioterrorist threats and other public health emergencies. The act builds on the programs and authorities established in Title III of the Public Health Service (PHS) Act by the Public Health Threats and Emergencies Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-505, Title I). The anti-bioterrorism legislation also includes provisions to protect the nation's food and drug supply and enhance agricultural security, including new regulatory powers for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to block the importation of unsafe foods. To protect the drinking water supply, the act requires community water systems to conduct vulnerability assessments and develop emergency response plans. P.L. 107-188 also reauthorizes the Prescription Drug Use Fee Act through FY2007."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Redhead, C. Stephen
2002-08-21
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First Responder Initiative: Policy Issues and Options [Updated September 29, 2003]
"In its FY2004 budget request, the Bush Administration proposed a new grant program called the 'First Responder Initiative' to help first responders prepare for possible terrorist attacks. Under the proposal, the Office for Domestic Preparedness (ODP), within the Department of Homeland Security, would administer program components of the initiative. The program's primary purpose would be to improve the ability of first responders (including police, firefighters, emergency medical, and hazardous materials personnel) to respond to terrorist attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. The program would fund a range of activities in the areas of planning, training, exercises, and equipment. The Administration proposal is one of several proposals to restructure first responder preparedness grants before the 108th Congress. Recently, the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee approved S. 1245, the Homeland Security Grant Enhancement Act of 2003, which seeks to simplify and streamline existing grant programs for first responder preparedness. This report will be updated as the 108th Congress takes action on proposals to create or modify first responder preparedness programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2003-09-29
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Export Administration Act of 1979 Reauthorization [Updated January 2, 2003]
"In debates on export administration legislation, parties often fall into two camps: those who primarily want to liberalize controls in order to promote exports, and those who are apprehensive that liberalization may compromise national security goals. While it is widely agreed that exports of some goods and technologies can adversely affect U.S. national security and foreign policy, many believe that current export controls are detrimental to U.S. business, that the resultant loss of competitiveness, market share, and jobs can harm the U.S. economy, and that the harm to particular U.S. industries and to the economy itself can negatively impact U.S. security. Controversies arise with regard to the cost to the U.S. economy, the licensing system, foreign availability of controlled items, and unilateral controls as opposed to multilateral regimes. In the last few years, congressional attention has focused on high-performance computers, encryption, stealth technology, precision machine tools, satellites, and aerospace technology. Congress has several options in addressing export administration policy, ranging from approving no new legislation to rewriting the entire Export Administration Act. Among the options presented in this report are: allow the President to continue export controls under emergency authority, restore the EAA 1979 with increased penalties, or, rewrite the Export Administration Act to account for changing national security concerns and a globalized economy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Jeanne J.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Elwell, Craig Kent, 1947-
2003-01-02
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Sudan: The Darfur Crisis and the Status of the North-South Negotiations [October 22, 2004]
"The ongoing crisis in Darfur in western Sudan has led to a major humanitarian disaster, with an estimated 1.5 million people displaced and more than 200,000 refugees forced into neighboring Chad. While there are no reliable estimates of the number of people killed as a result of the conflict, some observers estimate that up to 70,000 people have been killed from 2003 to the present. The government of Sudan has denied or severely restricted access to international relief officials in Darfur, although some aid is now flowing to the area. Violence against civilians, however, continues unabated, according to United Nations officials. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) officials assert that up to 320,000 could die by the end of 2004, irrespective of the international response. In September, the Council passed Resolution 1564, calling on the government of Sudan to cooperate with an expanded AU force and threatened sanctions if the government fails to meet the Council's demands. This report will be updated as the situation warrants."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.; Everett, Bathsheaba
2004-10-22
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FY2005 Defense Budget: Frequently Asked Questions [July 12, 2004]
"Using figures taken primarily from the White House Office of Management and Budget's (OMB's) 'Budget of the United States Government', Fiscal Year 2005: 'Historical Tables' (February 2004), this report answers frequently asked questions that fall within four categories: (1) trends in defense spending over time, from World War II through OMB's FY2009 budget projections (questions 1, 2, 3, and 4); (2) the impact of defense on the economy (questions 5, 6, and 7); (3) costs of wars and supplemental appropriations (questions 8 and 9); (4) trends in force structure (questions 10, 11, and 12). This report is designed to provide facts and figures about the United States defense budget in order to help answer frequently asked questions about defense spending. The answers to these questions are based on analysis of recent and historical trends in the defense budget up to and including the fiscal year (FY) 2005 budget request. This report will be updated as necessary."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Chamberlin, Jeffrey
2004-07-12
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Homeland Security: Banking and Financial Infrastructure Continuity [Updated September 5, 2003]
"The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has many responsibilities for ensuring the continuity of the 'real' economy: production, distribution, and consumption of public and private goods and services Other agencies, however, have long had similar responsibilities for the 'financial' sectors of the economy, which interact with the sectors DHS oversees pursuant to P.L. 107-296. DHS has some responsibilities for financial sectors through Treasury Department links. Financial agencies carry out recovery and security activities independently but also coordinately with DHS. For additional information on homeland security, please consult the CRS current legislative issue 'Homeland Security,' on congressional web site [http://www.crs.gov/products/browse/is-homelandsecurity.shtml]. This report outlines the existing recovery modes to mitigate disasters in financial markets that events have tested in recent experience, and recovery arrangements. (Such disasters for the financial economy are of two kinds: inability to conduct transactions, and large losses of asset value.) Homeland security requires the financial institutions that are important in supporting and maintaining both domestic and international commerce to take steps to safeguard their ability to carry out basic functions. The backbone of the financial economy - the payment system - comes through banks, and monetary policy affects them immediately."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, William
2003-09-05
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Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated October 27, 2004]
"Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States that would be required to meet the target was estimated to be lower than 7%. The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. However, the Clinton Administration did not submit the Protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997 - meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases - had not been met. In late March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol. The United States continues to attend the annual conferences of the parties (COPs) to the UNFCCC, but does not participate in Kyoto Protocol-related negotiations. This report is intended to provide background on the Kyoto Protocol. It will be updated annually or as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fletcher, Susan R.
2004-10-27
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Andean Regional Initiative (ARI): FY2003 Supplemental and FY2004 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors [Updated January 30, 2004]
From the Summary: "In 2003, Congress considered President Bush's requests for FY2004 and FY2003 supplemental assistance for Colombia and six regional neighbors in a continuation of the Andean Regional Initiative (ARI) launched in 2001. ARI was proposed as an expansion of support for Plan Colombia, under the Clinton Administration, with more funding for social and economic development programs for Colombia and its neighbors, who are affected by Colombia's struggle against guerrillas and drug traffickers. From FY2000 through FY2003, Colombia and other ARI recipients have received more than $3 billion in U.S. funding. In early 2003, an FY2003 Emergency Wartime Supplemental bill (H.Rept. 108-76/P.L. 108-11) provided $105 million in additional assistance for the Andean Counterdrug Initiative and related programs. This included $34 million for the State Department's International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement account, $34 million for the Department of Defense's Drug Interdiction and Counter-Drug Activities account, and $37.1 million in Foreign Military Financing Program funds. The President submitted his FY2004 budget request to Congress on February 3, 2003, including $990.7 million for countries comprising the Andean Regional Initiative, including military funding for Colombia. Of the $990.7 million requested, $731 million is for the Andean Counterdrug Initiative, $133.5 million for the Foreign Military Financing Program, with the remainder of the overall figure in development, economic, and health programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Veillette, Connie; Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-
2004-01-30
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Colombia: Issues for Congress [Updated January 19, 2005]
From the Summary: "Congress has expressed concern with respect to a number of Colombia related issues including human rights, the aerial eradication of illicit drug crops, interdiction programs, the situation of U.S. hostages, and funding levels for Plan Colombia. Moreover, Congress has debated U.S. policy options in Colombia on the basis of the country's prominent role in drug production, and the effects that drug trafficking has with regard to terrorism, regional security and oil production. U.S. policy in Colombia remains controversial, but inroads have been made with regard to the eradication of illicit drug crops and improved security conditions. However, nongovernmental organizations argue that U.S. policy does not rigorously promote human rights, provide for sustainable economic alternatives for drug crop farmers, or provide protections for Colombian nationals in the United States who fear returning to their homes. In 2005, Congress will likely consider the progress of U.S. programs in light of an anticipated Administration request to continue funding for the Andean Counterdrug Initiative."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Veillette, Connie
2005-01-19
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Military Base Closures: A Historical Review from 1988 to 1995 [Updated October 18, 2004]
From the Summary: "This report discusses a concerted effort to close unneeded military bases as part wide-ranging efforts during the 1980s and 1990s to balance the budget. This effort had been supported by a broad consensus that, among the approximately 3,800 military bases (1990 est.) in the United States, many could be closed without significant detrimental effect to national security. This view became more pronounced in the wake of the Soviet Union's breakup and collapse of the Warsaw Pact military threat. While most analysts agreed that the Department of Defense's DOD's) base structure was larger than necessary to meet the department's needs, there were differences concerning which, if any, additional bases should be closed, what speed, and what criteria should be used for making those decisions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lockwood, David E.; Siehl, George H.
2004-10-18
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Colombia and Aerial Eradication of Drug Crops: U.S. Policy and Issues [Updated August 28, 2003]
From the Summary: "Aerial eradication is a key counternarcotics element of U.S. assistance to Colombia under Plan Colombia and the Andean Regional Initiative (ARI). The United States has allocated approximately $265 million to finance aerial eradication since 2000 when U.S. counternarcotics funding and involvement in Colombia expanded. For aerial eradication, the United States finances spray aircraft, maintenance, fuel, herbicide, and related operational expenses, using civilian contractors to carry out missions. The U.S. Congress has conditioned U.S. funding on a determination from the Secretary of State that the herbicide used complies with U.S. and Colombian regulatory requirements, and poses no reasonable risks to human health and the environment. Congress has also required the Secretary to determine that adequate mechanisms exist to process complaints of those who claim harm to health and licit crops due to fumigation. In addition, funds may not be used for fumigation if alternative development programs, that encourage small farmers to abandon illicit crops in exchange for government assistance for alternative crops, are not being implemented. Alternative development is seen as a key component of aerial eradication partly because it builds political support for fumigation and provides incentives that ensure permanent eradication. Since 2000, the United States has allocated $150.2 million for alternative development programs, administered by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Veillette, Connie; Arvelo-Velez, Jose E.
2003-08-28
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Azerbaijan: Current Developments and U.S. Interests [Updated May 10, 2004]
From the Summary: "This report discusses political, economic, and security challenges facing Azerbaijan, including faltering democratization, poverty, crime and corruption, and the unsettled conflict in Azerbaijan's breakaway Nagorno Karabakh region. Oil and natural gas resources and pipelines are briefly examined. A table provides basic facts and biographical information. This report may be updated. Related products include CRS Issue Brief IB95024, 'Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia,' updated regularly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2004-05-10
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India-U.S. Economic Relations [Updated February 10, 2005]
From the Document: "India is a country with a long history and a large population (more than one billion people, nearly half living in poverty). Given that it is the world's most populous democracy, a U.S. ally in anti-terrorism efforts, and a potentially major export market, India's economic development and its trade relations with the United States are of concern to Congress. India's economic growth has been relatively robust over the past few years. Real GDP grew by 8.2% in 2003 and by an estimated 5.7% in 2004. Global Insight, an economic forecasting firm, projects India's real GDP will rise by 6.3% in (FY) 2005 and 6.0% in 2006. By some measurements, India is among the world's largest economies. While on a nominal U.S. dollar exchange rate basis, India's 2003 GDP was $577 billion. However, on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis (which factors in differences in prices across countries), India's GDP is estimated at close to $3 trillion. By this measurement, India is the world's fourth-largest economy (after the United States, China, and Japan). However, its per capita GDP on a PPP basis (a common international measurement of a nation's living standards) was $2,780, equal to only 7.4% of U.S. levels. Poverty is perhaps India's greatest problem. According to the World Bank, India has 433 million people (44.2% of the population) living below the international poverty measurement of less than $1 per day. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan; Morrison, Wayne M.
2005-02-10
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Serbia: 2004 Presidential Elections [Updated June 29, 2004]
From the Summary: "Serbia, the larger republic within the Serbia and Montenegro union, held presidential elections on June 13 and 27, 2004. While the actual powers of the republican presidency are not very extensive, the election outcome was expected to signal the political direction of Serbia and its prospects for closer relations with the international community. In the first round of voting, Tomislav Nikolic, leader of the extremist Serbian Radical Party, and Boris Tadic, candidate of the opposition Democratic Party, came in first and second place in front of 13 other candidates. In the second round, Tadic defeated Nikolic, 54% to 45%. Calling the results a victory for 'a European future' over radical nationalism, Tadic pledged to guide the country closer to European Union membership. However, Tadic's victory may trigger still more political changes, including early parliamentary elections. A related CRS [Congressional Research Service] product is CRS Report RL30371, 'Serbia and Montenegro: Current Situation and U.S. Policy,' by Steven Woehrel."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie
2004-06-29
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Dual-Use Biological Equipment: Difficulties in Domestic Regulation [Updated January 22, 2004]
From the Summary: "Dual-use technologies, technologies with both civilian and military use, are often cited as lowering technical barriers to terrorist development of chemical and biological weapons. Export of these technologies is regulated through both domestic law and international agreement, but domestic sales are not. Dual-use biological equipment, whose military use includes the production of biological weapons, is employed in many different civilian and commercial applications, including academic research and the pharmaceutical, medical, and manufacturing industries. Consequently, regulating such equipment might have a marked economic impact and prove to be infeasible. Possible approaches to controlling this equipment include voluntary self-regulation and use of industry best practices by suppliers, licensing of equipment purchasers, registration of equipment, and application of civil penalties to suppliers for inappropriate end-use of equipment. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shea, Dana A.
2004-01-22
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Authorization and Appropriations for FY2005: Defense [Updated December 14, 2004]
"The annual consideration of appropriations bills (regular, continuing, and supplemental) by Congress is part of a complex set of budget processes that also encompasses the consideration of budget resolutions, revenue and debt-limit legislation, other spending measures, and reconciliation bills. In addition, the operation of programs and the spending of appropriated funds are subject to constraints established in authorizing statutes. Congressional action on the budget for a fiscal year usually begins following the submission of the President's budget at the beginning of each annual session of Congress.
Congressional practices governing the consideration of appropriations and other budgetary measures are rooted in the Constitution, the standing rules of the House and Senate, and statutes, such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. This report is a guide to one of the 13 regular appropriations bills that Congress considers each year. It is designed to supplement the information provided by the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Defense. It summarizes the status of the bill, its scope, major issues, funding levels, and related congressional activity, and is updated as events warrant. The report lists the key CRS staff relevant to the issues covered and related CRS products."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Daggett, Stephen
2004-12-14
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Iraq: Recent Developments in Reconstruction Assistance [Updated December 20, 2004]
"Large-scale reconstruction assistance programs are being undertaken by the
United States following the war with Iraq. To fund such programs, Congress
approved on April 12, 2003, a $2.48 billion Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund in the FY2003 Supplemental Appropriation. On November 6, 2003, the President
signed into law P.L. 108-106, the FY2004 Emergency Supplemental Appropriation,
providing $18.4 billion for Iraq reconstruction. Contributions pledged at the October 24, 2003, Madrid donor conference by other donors amounted to roughly $3.6 billion in grant aid and as much as $13.3 billion in possible loans. On June 28, 2004, the entity implementing assistance programs, the Coalition
Provisional Authority (CPA), dissolved, and sovereignty was returned to Iraq.
Security Council Resolution 1546 of June 8, 2004, returned control of assets held in the Development Fund for Iraq to the government of Iraq. Many reconstruction efforts on the ground are underway, but security concerns
have slowed progress considerably. Most reconstruction funding is targeted at
infrastructure projects -- roads, sanitation, electric power, oil production, etc. Aid is also used to train and equip Iraqi security forces. However, of
the $18.4 billion appropriated by Congress in October 2003, only $9.6 billion had been obligated and $2.1 billion spent by mid-December 2004. Congress approved on September 29 an Administration-proposed re-allocation of $3.5 billion in previously appropriated reconstruction funds to give greater emphasis to security, employment generation, and debt relief."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tarnoff, Curt
2004-12-20
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Berry Amendment: Requiring Defense Procurement to Come from Domestic Sources [Updated December 8, 2004]
"The Berry Amendment requires the Department of Defense (DOD) to give preference in procurement to domestically produced, manufactured, or home grown products, notably food, clothing, fabrics, and specialty metals. In order to protect the U.S. industrial base during periods of adversity and war, Congress passed domestic source restrictions as part of the 1941 Fifth Supplemental DOD Appropriations Act; these provisions later became the Berry Amendment. In the spring of 2001, Congress revisited the Berry Amendment largely in response to a controversy involving the Army's procurement of black berets. DOD had granted the Defense Logistics Agency authority to waive the Berry Amendment in order to purchase berets from foreign sources. However, it was reported that DOD had known for 25 years that no U.S. firm produced a solely domestic beret; this suggested that other violations of the Berry Amendment may have been overlooked or under-reported. This procurement event raised important questions: (1) If the U.S. does not produce a solely domestic item, should DOD procurement be restricted from access to foreign sources? (2) Do procurement policies under the Berry Amendment adequately provide the best value to DOD and the federal government? (3) To what extent do U.S. national security interests justify waivers of the Berry Amendment? Some policymakers believe that policies like the Berry Amendment contradict free trade policies, and that the presence and degree of such competition is the most effective tool for promoting efficiencies and improving quality. On the other hand, others believe that key U.S. sectors need the protections afforded by the Berry Amendment. These two views have been the subject of ongoing debate in Congress. In the 108th Congress, both the proposed FY2005 National Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 4200), and P.L. 108-287, the FY2005 Department of Defense Appropriations Act, (H.R. 4613), contain provisions that may affect domestic source provisions in the Berry Amendment and the Buy American Act. This report examines the original intent and purpose of the Berry Amendment, legislative proposals to amend both laws and regulations governing the application of domestic source restrictions, as well as options for Congress. The report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2004-12-08
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Data Mining: An Overview [Updated December 16, 2004]
"Data mining is emerging as one of the key features of many homeland security
initiatives. In the context of
homeland security, data mining is often viewed as a potential means to identify
terrorist activities, such as money transfers and communications, and to identify and
track individual terrorists themselves, such as through travel and immigration
records. While data mining represents a significant advance in the type of analytical tools
currently available, there are limitations to its capability. One limitation is that
although data mining can help reveal patterns and relationships, it does not tell the
user the value or significance of these patterns. These types of determinations must
be made by the user. A second limitation is that while data mining can identify
connections between behaviors and/or variables, it does not necessarily identify a
causal relationship. To be successful, data mining still requires skilled technical and
analytical specialists who can structure the analysis and interpret the output that is created. As with other aspects of data mining, while technological capabilities are
important, there are other implementation and oversight issues that can influence the
success of a project's outcome. One issue is data quality, which refers to the
accuracy and completeness of the data being analyzed. A second issue is the
interoperability of the data mining software and databases being used by different
agencies. A third issue is mission creep, or the use of data for purposes other than
for which the data were originally collected. A fourth issue is privacy. Questions
that may be considered include the degree to which government agencies should use
and mix commercial data with government data, whether data sources are being used
for purposes other than those for which they were originally designed, and possible
application of the Privacy Act to these initiatives. It is anticipated that congressional
oversight of data mining projects will grow as data mining efforts continue to evolve.
This report will be updated as events warrant."
created.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seifert, Jeffrey W.
2004-12-16
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Germany's Role in Fighting Terrorism: Implications for U.S. Policy [December 27, 2004]
"This report examines Germany's response to global Islamic terrorism after the
September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States. It looks at current German strategy,
domestic efforts, and international responses, including possible gaps and
weaknesses. It examines the state of U.S.-German cooperation, including problems
and prospects for future cooperation. This report may be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Miko, Francis T.
2004-12-27
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Energy Policy: Historical Overview, Conceptual Framework, and Continuing Issues [Updated December 21, 2004]
"The persistent attention being given to energy policy has its roots in an
unexpected jump in oil prices that began in the late spring of 1999, following a
production cut by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This
supply change affecting fuel prices was the fourth significant episode since 1973 to jog American awareness of the extent to which the U.S. economy and lifestyle depends on inexpensive and plentiful energy. When the United States experiences a period marked by sharp increases in the price for energy and concern about the adequacy of essential supplies, there is widespread concern that the nation has no energy policy. The nation has, in fact, adopted several distinct policy approaches over the years, many of the debates turning around the question of the appropriate extent of the federal government's role in energy. Traditionally, the energy debate has been the most vigorous over the balance to be struck between increasing supply and encouraging conservation. However, when markets are unstable, debate turns on another axis as well, that of short-term versus long-term policies. There are other alternatives. For example, tax policy can affect energy price directly to the extent that excise taxes on fuel products can be raised or lowered. Programs such as the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) can provide direct assistance to families whose quality of life is especially burdened by high energy prices. Lastly, Congress always has the option to require study and analysis of a problem before settling on a policy course. Energy policy issues of continuing interest include whether or not to open up the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) for leasing; settlement upon a pipeline route to allow production of Alaskan natural gas; access to public lands for energy exploration and development; restructuring of the electric utility industry to encourage competition and consumer choice; raising corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards for motor vehicles; seeking effective means to promote energy conservation using currently available technologies; and development of new
technologies and alternative fuels."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert
2004-12
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Indonesian Separatist Movement in Aceh [Updated February 26, 2004]
"Indonesia faces a major separatist insurgency in the province of Aceh in northern
Sumatra. The Indonesian government has proposed autonomy for Aceh, but insurgents
demand independence. Negotiations and cease-fires have been unsuccessful.
Indonesian civilian leaders have been unable to control the Indonesian military, whose
aggressive actions in Aceh produce frequent reports of human rights abuses and
alienation of the populace. The Bush Administration has urged Indonesia to seek a
political settlement; but it has been hesitant to deal with the military's actions and seeks
renewed ties with the military in order to cooperate against terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2004-02-26
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Military Technology and Conventional Weapons Export Controls: The Wassenaar Arrangement [Updated May 21, 2004]
"This report provides background on the Wassenaar Arrangement, which was
formally established in July 1996 as a multilateral arrangement aimed at controlling
exports of conventional weapons and related dual-use goods and military technology.
It is the successor to the expired Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export
Controls (COCOM). This report focuses on the current status, features, and issues
raised by the establishment and functioning of the Wassenaar Arrangement. It will be
updated only if warranted by notable events related to the Arrangement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2004-05-21
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Special Operations Forces (SOF) and CIA Paramilitary Operations: Issues for Congress [Updated December 6, 2006]
"The 9/11 Commission Report recommended that responsibility for directing and executing paramilitary operations should be shifted from the CIA to the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). The President directed the Secretary of Defense and Director of Central Intelligence to review this recommendation and present their advice by mid-February 2005, but ultimately, they did not recommend a transfer of paramilitary responsibilities. This Report will briefly describe special operations conducted by DOD and paramilitary operations conducted by the CIA and discuss the background of the 9/11 Commission's recommendations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew; Best, Richard A.
2006-12-06
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Recruiting and Retention: A Brief Overview of FY2004 Results for Active Component Personnel [December 30, 2004]
"This report provides a brief overview of the FY2004 recruiting and retention rates for active component personnel. This report does not cover recruiting and retention rates for reserve component personnel. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the United States has launched three major military operations: Operation Noble Eagle (ONE), which covers military operations related to homeland security; Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), which includes ongoing military operations in Afghanistan and certain other countries; and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), which includes ongoing military operations in Iraq. ONE, OEF, and OIF have dramatically increased the operations tempo of the military services, and especially of the Army, which has shouldered the bulk of the manpower burden associated with the occupation of Iraq. Additionally, more military personnel have been killed or wounded in Iraq than in any other conflict since the Vietnam war. Many observers have expressed concern that the current operations tempo, and the level of casualties in Iraq, might lead to lower recruiting and retention rates, thereby jeopardizing the vitality of today's all-volunteer military. To date, recruiting and retention rates for active component officer and enlisted personnel have remained generally strong. There are, however, some areas of concern. Most importantly, the Army will face significant recruiting and retention challenges in the coming year due to its increased recruiting and retention goals for FY2005, coupled with the relatively small number of people in the its 'delayed entry pool'(which consists of individuals who have signed a contract to join the military at a future date). This report will be updated as necessary."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence
2004-12-30
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NATO Applicant States: A Status Report [Updated April 25, 2003]
From the Abstract: "Nine central and eastern European nations are seeking an invitation to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) at the November 2002 NATO summit: Albania, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. There are general guidelines for evaluating nations seeking NATO membership; however, these guidelines are not a checklist that, when completed, would automatically guarantee membership. NATO members decide on the basis of consensus whether the admission of a state will serve the interests of the Alliance and promote European security and stability. This report, which was compiled from memoranda prepared in January 1999 at the request of former Senator William Roth, contains brief assessments of the NATO applicants' qualifications. The report was updated in April 2003."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.; Kim, Julie; Ek, Carl
2003-04-25
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Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2001 [Updated February 5, 2002]
From the Summary: "This report lists hundreds of instances in which the United States has used its armed forces abroad in situations of military conflict or potential conflict or for other than normal peacetime purposes. It was compiled in part from various older lists and is intended primarily to provide a rough survey of past U.S. military ventures abroad, without reference to the magnitude of the given instance noted. The listing often contains references, especially from 1980 forward, to continuing military deployments especially U.S. military participation in multinational operations associated with NATO or the United Nations. Most of these post-1980 instances are summaries based on Presidential reports to Congress related to the War Powers Resolution. A comprehensive commentary regarding any of the instances listed is not undertaken here."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2002-02-05
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Colombia: U.S. Assistance and Current Legislation [Updated May 15, 2001]
From the Summary: "On February 7, 2000, the Clinton Administration, as part of its annual budget request, asked Congress for FY2000 supplemental appropriations of $954 million for assistance to Colombia and other Andean counternarcotics efforts. FY2000 allocated funding for Colombia, from appropriations made in 1999, already totals some $164.0 million. At the same time, the Administration requested $318 million for FY2001 assistance to Colombia and other regional efforts, in addition to the $150 million that it previously indicated it had planned to allocate to Colombia in FY2001. The Clinton Administration's 'Plan Colombia' program, as it became known, was intended to substantially increase the assistance provided to Colombia. The proposal's centerpiece was funding for the 'Push into Southern Colombia' program, which would include training and equipping two new army CN battalions, and providing funding to purchase new and sustain existing Blackhawk and Huey helicopters to transport them. Other assistance was included for interdiction, resettlement of displaced persons, economic development, and programs to improve Colombian National Police(CNP) eradication capabilities and to support human rights monitors, improve the justice system and strengthen the rule of law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Serafino, Nina M.
2001-05-15
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Panama-U.S. Relations [Updated March 26, 2001]
From the Document: "The December 20, 1989, U.S. military intervention in Panama, known as Operation Just Cause, heralded a new period in U.S.-Panamanian relations. In the aftermath of the intervention, U.S. policymakers immediately faced a new range of challenges including assistance for economic recovery, support for the development of a civilian police force, cooperation with the new government on counter-narcotics measures, and support for fragile democratic institutions. Panama has made abundant progress in all these areas, although the country still faces challenges. U.S. policymakers maintain an active concern about these issues because of continued U.S. interests in Panama, particularly the Panama Canal, which continues to be important to the United States for its commercial value. The Panamanian President's popularity fell significantly during the first year of her administration but improved in the latter part of 2000. A December 2000 public opinion poll showed an overall approval rating of 62%. However, many analysts believe that it will be difficult for President Moscoso to sustain her popularity because of sluggish economic growth and the administration's recent increases in electricity and telecommunications rates. The rate increases, which occurred in January 2001, resulted in violent street protests in the capital and led to many arrests. The political difficulties the president is facing may make it unlikely for her to gain legislative approval of proposed tax and social security reform measures she is proposing in March 2001. These measures are part of an agreement with the IMF that had been earlier scheduled for 2000. Without these reforms, the government will have difficulty meeting its fiscal and debt reduction targets or its public investment goals."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Villarreal, M. Angeles
2001-03-26
