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• Broadband Internet Access and the Digital Divide: Federal Assistance Programs [Updated January 17, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The 'digital divide' is a term that has been used to characterize a gap between 'information haves and have-nots,' or in other words, between those Americans who use or have access to telecommunications technologies (e.g., telephones, computers, the Internet) and those who do not. One important subset of the digital divide debate concerns high-speed Internet access, also known as broadband. Broadband is provided by a series of technologies (e.g. cable, telephone wire, satellite, wireless) that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. Broadband technologies are currently being deployed by the private sector throughout the United States. While the numbers of new broadband subscribers continue to grow, studies conducted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Department of Commerce (DOC), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggest that the rate of broadband deployment in urban and high income areas may be outpacing deployment in rural and low-income areas. Some policymakers, believing that disparities in broadband access across American society could have adverse economic and social consequences on those left behind, assert that the federal government should play a more active role to avoid a 'digital divide' in broadband access. One approach is for the federal government to provide financial assistance to support broadband deployment in underserved areas. Others, however, believe that federal assistance for broadband deployment is not appropriate. Some opponents question the reality of the 'digital divide,' and argue that federal intervention in the broadband marketplace would be premature and, in some cases, counterproductive. Legislation introduced into the 107th Congress sought to provide federal financial assistance for broadband deployment in the form of grants, loans, subsidies, and tax credits. Similar legislation is likely to be introduced into the 108th Congress. In assessing this legislation, several policy issues arise. For example, is the current status of broadband deployment data an adequate basis on which to base policy decisions? Given the early stages of broadband deployment, is federal assistance premature, or do the risks of delaying assistance to underserved areas outweigh the benefits of avoiding federal intervention in the marketplace? And finally, if one assumes that governmental action is necessary to spur broadband deployment in underserved areas, which specific approaches, either separately or in combination, are likely to be most effective?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kruger, Lennard G.

  2003-01-17
• Food Safety Issues in the 107th Congress [Updated November 7, 2001]

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  From the Summary: "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that each year in the United States 76 million people get sick, 325,000 are hospitalized, and 5,000 die from food-related illnesses. Food-borne illness is a serious public health problem. Often, people do not seek medical help and their illness is not officially reported. Yet consumers have become aware of the serious consequences of illnesses linked to a growing variety of foods, produced domestically or imported. Consumers want the government to regulate the food supply, and industry is interested in producing foods that are safe at a reasonable price. As a result there is congressional interest in oversight and legislation in this area. Several federal agencies, along with cooperating agencies in the states, are responsible for assuring the safety, wholesomeness, and proper labeling of all foods for human consumption in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vogt, Donna U.

  2001-11-07
• Mining on Federal Lands [Updated October 3, 2003]

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  The General Mining Law of 1872 is one of the major statutes that direct the federal government's land management policy. The law grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain lands, and allows them, upon making a discovery, to stake (or "locate") a claim on that deposit. A claim gives the holder the right to develop the minerals and may be "patented" to convey full title to the claimant. A continuing issue is whether this law should be reformed, and if so, how to balance mineral development with competing land uses. The right to enter the public domain and freely prospect for and develop minerals is the feature of the claim-patent system that draws the most vigorous support from the mining industry. Critics consider the claim-patent system a giveaway of publicly owned resources because of the small amounts paid to maintain a claim and to obtain a patent. In addition to the general issue of whether to reform the General Mining Law, two issues also have been controversial. One involves mining millsites. At issue is whether the General Mining Law limits claimants to one millsite of no more than five acres per mining claim, or whether multiple millsites are allowed. A second issue involves the Clinton Administration's revisions to the regulations governing hardrock mining operations on federal lands (43 CFR 3809), which took effect January 20, 2001. The revised regulations authorized BLM to deny mining operations if they would result in "substantial irreparable harm" to significant resources that cannot be mitigated, and made mining operators more responsible for reclaiming mined land.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc

  2003-10-03
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated January 15, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States required to meet the target is estimated to be lower than 7%. The Clinton Administration did not submit the protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997-meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases-had not been met. However, in late March, the Bush Administration indicated its rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and announced a cabinet-level review of climate policy. This initiated a high-level but unsuccessful effort by the European nations to re-engage the United States in the Kyoto process. When the COP-6 meeting resumed in July 2001, the United States remained on the sidelines, following the Bush Administration's decision not to engage in negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. To the surprise of many, negotiators at this meeting reached agreement on most of the outstanding political issues, with compromises allowing significant credit for carbon sinks, and at the following COP-7 meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, in October- November, 2001, most remaining operational decisions were completed. As of January 3, 2003, the UNFCCC Secretariat reported that 102 nations have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, representing 43.9% of the emissions of developed countries with obligations outlined in the Protocol. In order to enter into force, the Protocol must be ratified by nations representing 55% of these emissions. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2003-01-15
• Crime Victims' Rights Act: A Summary and Legal Analysis of 18 U.S.C. § 3771 [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "Section 3771 of Title 18 of the 'United States Code' is a statutory bill of rights for the victims of crimes committed in violation of federal law or the laws of the District of Columbia. It defines a victim as anyone directly and proximately harmed by such an offense, individuals and legal entities alike. It does not appear to otherwise include family members of a deceased, child, or incapacitated victim except in a representative capacity. Numbered among the rights it conveys are: (1) the right to be reasonably protected from the accused; (2) the right to notification of public court and parole proceedings and of any release of the accused; (3) the right not to be excluded from public court proceedings under most circumstances; (4) the right to be heard in public court proceedings relating to bail, the acceptance of a plea bargain, sentencing, or parole; (5) the right to confer with the prosecutor; (6) the right to restitution under the law; (7) the right to proceedings free from unwarranted delays; (8) the right to be treated fairly and with respect to one's dignity and privacy; (9) the right to be informed in a timely manner of any plea bargain or deferred prosecution agreement; and (10) the right to be informed of the statutory rights and services to which one is entitled. The section directs the federal courts and law enforcement officials to see to it that the rights it creates are honored. Both victims and prosecutors may assert the rights and seek review from the appellate courts should the rights be initially denied."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2021-06-08
• Crime Victims' Rights Act: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. § 3771 [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "Section 3771 of Title 18 of the U.S. Code is a statutory bill of rights for the victims of crimes committed in violation of federal law or the laws of the District of Columbia. It defines a victim as anyone directly and proximately harmed by such an offense, individuals and legal entities alike. It does not appear to otherwise include family members of a deceased, child, or incapacitated victim except in a representative capacity. Numbered among the rights it conveys are: (1) the right to be reasonably protected from the accused; (2) the right to notification of public court and parole proceedings and of any release of the accused; (3) the right not to be excluded from public court proceedings under most circumstances; (4) the right to be heard in public court proceedings relating to bail, the acceptance of a plea bargain, sentencing, or parole; (5) the right to confer with the prosecutor; (6) the right to restitution under the law; (7) the right to proceedings free from unwarranted delays; (8) the right to be treated fairly and with respect to one's dignity and privacy; (9) the right to be informed in a timely manner of any plea bargain or deferred prosecution agreement; and (10) the right to be informed of the statutory rights and services to which one is entitled. The section directs the federal courts and law enforcement officials to see to it that the rights it creates are honored."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2021-06-08
• Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Document: "Both U.S. national strategy documents and Congress's own bipartisan 'Future of Defense Task Force Report' have identified a number of emerging technologies that could have a disruptive impact on U.S. national security in the years to come. These technologies include [1] artificial intelligence, [2] lethal autonomous weapons, [3] hypersonic weapons, [4] directed-energy weapons, [5] biotechnology, and [6] quantum technology. As these technologies continue to mature, they could hold significant implications for congressional oversight, U.S. defense authorizations and appropriations, military concepts of operations, and the future of war." Some potential issues for Congress to consider are: "[1] What is the appropriate balance of funding across these and other emerging technologies, given the potential military utility and technological maturity of each? [2] Some analysts have argued that DOD should develop a technology strategy to establish long-term priorities across these and other emerging technologies. What impact would such a strategy have on Congress's ability to conduct oversight or evaluate budget requests? [3] Some reports indicate that both DOD and defense industry have difficulty recruiting and retaining personnel with expertise in emerging technologies. In addition, analysts have noted that the development of many emerging technologies requires experts from a number of disparate fields (e.g., development of quantum technology could require experts in quantum information science, machine learning, materials science, and other fields). What measures, if any, should the United States take to ensure that the emerging technology workforce is sufficient to support U.S. competitiveness and military superiority?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sayler, Kelley M.

  2021-06-08
• Deep Fakes and National Security [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Document: "'Deep fakes'--a term that first emerged in 2017 to describe realistic photo, audio, video, and other forgeries generated with artificial intelligence (AI) technologies--could present a variety of national security challenges in the years to come. As these technologies continue to mature, they could hold significant implications for congressional oversight, U.S. defense authorizations and appropriations, and the regulation of social media platforms. [...] Some analysts have noted that algorithm-based detection tools could lead to a cat-and-mouse game, in which the deep fake generators are rapidly updated to address flaws identified by detection tools. For this reason, they argue that social media platforms--in addition to deploying deep fake detection tools--may need to expand the means of labeling and/or authenticating content. This could include a requirement that users identify the time and location at which the content originated or that they label edited content as such. Other analysts have expressed concern that regulation of deep fake technology could impose undue burden on social media platforms or lead to unconstitutional restrictions on free speech and artistic expression. These analysts have suggested that existing law is sufficient for managing the malicious use of deep fakes. Some experts have asserted that responding with technical tools alone will be insufficient and that instead the focus should be on the need to educate the public about deep fakes and minimize incentives for creators of malicious deep fakes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sayler, Kelley M.; Harris, Laurie A.

  2021-06-08
• Defense Health Primer: U.S. Coast Guard Health Services [Updated June 10, 2021]

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  From the Document: "Established in 1790, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) is a military service in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and a branch of the armed forces of the United States. The role of USCG is to provide security, maritime safety, and environmental stewardship on the high seas and in the ports, inland waterways, and maritime economic zones of the United States. To support these tasks, 14 U.S.C. §504 authorizes USCG to administer a Health Services program to sustain the medical readiness of approximately 47,000 active duty and reserve servicemembers of the Coast Guard. The USCG program also collaborates with the Military Health System (MHS) of the Department of Defense (DOD) to offer health care services to 9.6 million beneficiaries eligible for TRICARE. [...] There are a number of perceived challenges facing the USCG Health Services program, many of which have attracted congressional attention and ongoing oversight. [1] Electronic Health Record Modernization; [...] [2] USPHS [U.S. Public Health Service] Support to USCG; [...] [and 3] Disability Evaluation System."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mendez, Bryce H. P.

  2021-06-10
• Coast Guard Polar Security Cutter (Polar Icebreaker) Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 7, 2021]

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  From the Introduction: "This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the Polar Security Cutter (PSC) program--the Coast Guard's program for acquiring new PSCs (i.e., heavy polar icebreakers). The Coast Guard's proposed FY2022 budget requests $170.0 million in procurement funding for the PSC program. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Administration's FY2022 procurement funding request for the PSC program, and, more generally, whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's overall plan for procuring new polar icebreakers. Congress's decisions on this issue could affect Coast Guard funding requirements, the Coast Guard's ability to perform its polar missions, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2021-06-07
• Coast Guard Cutter Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Introduction: "This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Coast Guard's programs for procuring 8 National Security Cutters (NSCs), 25 Offshore Patrol Cutters (OPCs), and 58 Fast Response Cutters (FRCs). The Coast Guard's proposed FY2022 budget requests a total of $695 million in procurement funding for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's funding requests and acquisition strategies for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs. Congress's decisions on these three programs could substantially affect Coast Guard capabilities and funding requirements, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base. The NSC, OPC, and FRC programs have been subjects of congressional oversight for many years, and were previously covered in other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports dating back to 1998 that are now archived. CRS testified on the Coast Guard's cutter acquisition programs most recently in October and November of 2018. The Coast Guard's plans for modernizing its fleet of polar icebreakers are covered in a separate CRS report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2021-06-08
• Controlling Lead in Public Drinking Water Supplies [Updated June 1, 2021]

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  From the Document: "Communities may face a range of issues associated with aging water infrastructure, including elevated lead levels in tap water. Because of lead's toxicity, even at low levels, reducing lead exposures from drinking water and other sources remains a public health priority. Other sources of lead exposure include lead-based paint and contaminated soil and dust from deteriorated lead-based paint. [...] In 2015, EPA received recommendations for LCR [Lead and Copper Rule] revisions from the National Drinking Water Advisory Council (NDWAC). NDWAC recommendations included requiring all water systems to establish a proactive LSL [lead service lines] replacement program, noting that it would be costly and likely take decades to fully remove all LSLs. As such, NDWAC recognized corrosion control's importance and recommended that EPA revise the rule's action level and requirements for corrosion control treatment and monitoring, among other revisions. EPA published final Lead and Copper Rule Revisions, or LCRR, in the 'Federal Register' on January 15, 2021, with an effective date of March 16, 2021, which was extended until June 17, 2021. EPA also proposed to delay the rule's effective date to December 16, 2021. The LCRR revises the 1991 LCR, and retains for certain purposes the 1991 LCR's 15 ppb [parts per billion] lead action level. Among other changes, the LCRR also establishes a new lead 'trigger level' at 10 ppb, based on the 90th percentile of tap water samples."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphreys, Elena H.

  2021-06-01
• China Primer: Uyghurs [Updated June 7, 2021]

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  From the Document: "Uyghurs (also spelled 'Uighurs') are a Muslim ethnic group living primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) in the far northwest of the People's Republic of China (PRC). They have garnered the attention of U.S. policymakers, particularly since 2018 following reports of the mass internment of Uyghurs in 'reeducation' centers. The detentions are part of a PRC government effort to systematically transform the thought and behavior of Uyghurs and forcefully assimilate them into Chinese society, which some observers believe may result in the destruction of Uyghur culture and identity. The U.S. government has responded by implementing targeted restrictions on trade with Xinjiang and imposing visa and economic sanctions on some PRC officials."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-; Weber, Michael A.

  2021-06-07
• Coast Guard Waterways Commerce Cutter (WCC) Program: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 1, 2021]

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  From the Introduction: "The Coast Guard's Waterways Commerce Cutter (WCC) program envisages procuring 30 replacements for the Coast Guard's 35 aging river buoy tenders (WLRs), inland construction tenders (WLICs), and inland buoy tenders (WLIs). The Coast Guard wants to award the first contract for constructing the new WCCs in FY2022, and to have the first new WCC be in service by 2025. The Coast Guard's proposed FY2022 budget requests $67.0 million in procurement funding for the WCC program. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's proposed acquisition strategy and funding requests for the WCC program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2021-06-01
• Changes to Postal Regulatory Commission Administration in the Postal Service Reform Act of 2021 [June 2, 2021]

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  From the Document: "The Postal Service Reform Act of 2021 (H.R. 3076 and the similar, but not identical, S. 1720) includes a number of provisions that would alter the authority and operations of the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) and the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC). The chair of the House Committee on Oversight and Reform, Representative Carolyn Maloney, a co-sponsor of H.R. 3076, has described [hyperlink] the legislation as 'crucial to help the Postal Service get on a sustainable financial path for the future and ensure that the Postal Service is transparent with Congress and the American People.' Discussion of the legislation [hyperlink] has focused on the finances of USPS but has also highlighted other changes, such as the provision of paid leave for postal employees. This Insight discusses two provisions of the legislation that would affect the operations of the PRC and certain aspects of its relationship to USPS. The Insight begins with a brief summary of relevant aspects of the PRC's organization and authority and then proceeds to describe and analyze Sections 205 and 209 of the Postal Service Reform Act, as introduced in the House."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wilhelm, Ben

  2021-06-02
• Iraq's Opposition Movements [Updated June 27, 2000]

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  From the Summary: "Many in Congress and the Administration agree that the only way to blunt the long-term threat from Iraq is to remove Saddam Husayn from power. The Iraq Liberation Act (H.R. 4655, P.L. 105-338), signed October 31, 1998, gives the President authority to provide up to $97 million worth of defense articles to support an insurgency against Saddam. However, there are disagreements over the viability of the opposition and over how aggressively the United States should support the opposition groups. This report will be updated to reflect legislative and other developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2000-06-27
• National Missile Defense: Status of the Debate [Updated May 29, 1998]

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  From the Summary: "In recent years, the debate over National Missile Defense (NMD) has focused on how best, and how quickly, to develop and deploy a system to protect the United States against a limited ballistic missile threat- either an accidental or unauthorized launch from Russia or China or a deliberate attack from a rogue state. The Clinton Administration is pursuing what it calls a '3 plus 3' strategy- the goal is to develop NMD technology over the three years through 2000 sufficiently to allow a system to be deployed three years later, by 2003, if a decision is made to do so. If a decision to deploy is deferred, development would continue. Many missile defense advocates in Congress, however, want to set a date for deploying a nationwide defense. Key issues in the debate include how quickly rogue nations might acquire long-range missiles, whether advances in technology warrant deferring a decision to deploy, whether an initial deployment should be followed by a more extensive system, cost, and the implications of a deployment decision for the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and for negotiating further limits on strategic offensive weapons. Faced with the prospect of a Presidential veto, Congress has not set a deployment date in annual defense authorization or appropriations bills. Instead, Congress has considered freestanding bills to establish NMD policy- recently the Senate took up the American Missile Protection Act of 1998, S. 1873, but a cloture vote failed on May 13."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Daggett, Stephen

  1998-05-29
• Iran: Arms and Technology Acquisitions [Updated June 22, 1998]

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  From the Summary: "The Clinton Administration and Congress are pressing to persuade Iran's major arms and technology suppliers, primarily Russia and China, to sever their military relations with Iran. The Administration's need to engage supplier countries on a wide range of issues often has complicated U.S. efforts to end their dealings with Iran, and has led some in Congress to demand that the Administration do more to compel supplier countries to end transfers to Iran. Both the House and the Senate have passed a bill (H.R. 2709), by overwhelming margins, imposing sanctions on foreign entities that contribute to Iran's efforts to develop ballistic missiles. The Clinton Administration has said a veto is likely; it has until June 23 to do so. This report will be updated in response to legislative and policy developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  1998-06-22
• Executive Order 14032: Addressing the Threat From Securities Investments That Finance Certain Companies of the People's Republic of China

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  From the Document: "I, JOSEPH R. BIDEN JR., President of the United States of America, find that additional steps are necessary to address the national emergency declared in Executive Order 13959 of November 12, 2020 (Addressing the Threat From Securities Investments That Finance Communist Chinese Military Companies), including the threat posed by the military-industrial complex of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and its involvement in military, intelligence, and security research and development programs, and weapons and related equipment production under the PRC's Military-Civil Fusion strategy. In addition, I find that the use of Chinese surveillance technology outside the PRC and the development or use of Chinese surveillance technology to facilitate repression or serious human rights abuse constitute unusual and extraordinary threats, which have their source in whole or substantial part outside the United States, to the national security, foreign policy, and economy of the United States, and I hereby expand the scope of the national emergency declared in Executive Order 13959 to address those threats."

  United States. Office of the Federal Register

  Biden, Joseph R., Jr.

  2021-06-03
• FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin: June 2021

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  This June 2021 edition of the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin contains the following articles: "Patch Call: Palm Beach, Florida, Police Department"; "Focus on Media Relations: Earning Positive Press" by Ronica Cleary; "Compelled Internal Affairs Interviews and Fifth Amendment Rights" by Mike Callahan; "Bulletin Notes"; "Overcoming Investigative Assumptions" by Sean Gleason, Sajid Haidari, Charlie Robinson, and Thomas J. Dover; "Leadership Spotlight: Feedback and Emotional Intelligence" by Marian Elizabeth Coleman; and "Patch Call: Ector County, Texas, Independent School District Police Department."

  United States. Federal Bureau of Investigation

  2021-06
• Teachers Are Not All Right: How the COVID-19 Pandemic is Taking a Toll on the Nation's Teachers

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  From the Webpage: "The pandemic has put unprecedented demands on teachers, who were asked to pivot instruction to the cloud and find new ways of connecting with families and students. Julia Kaufman and Melissa Diliberti offer fresh evidence on how teachers are faring as they navigate these unprecedented times. Their review of teacher surveys available to date shows: Teachers' workloads spiked last spring and haven't let up. On average, teachers are working six more hours per week than before the pandemic. All teachers, but especially those teaching remotely and in high-poverty schools, are struggling to provide instruction, engage students, manage technology, and much more. Morale has fallen sharply and seems to be getting worse as challenges compound and build. According to a survey by RAND, about one-quarter of all teachers reported they were likely to leave the teaching profession by the end of the year."

  The Evidence Project

  Kaufman, Julia H.; Diliberti, Melissa

  2021-01
• Proximal Origin of SARS-CoV-2

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  From the Document: "Since the first reports of novel pneumonia (COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019]) in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, there has been considerable discussion on the origin of the causative virus, SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2] (also referred to as HCoV-19 [human coronavirus 2019]). Infections with SARS-CoV-2 are now widespread, and as of 11 March 2020, 121,564 cases have been confirmed in more than 110 countries, with 4,373 deaths. SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh coronavirus known to infect humans; SARS-CoV [severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus], MERSCoV [Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus] and SARS-CoV-2 can cause severe disease, whereas HKU1, NL63, OC43 and 229E are associated with mild symptoms. Here we review what can be deduced about the origin of SARS-CoV-2 from comparative analysis of genomic data. We offer a perspective on the notable features of the SARS-CoV-2 genome and discuss scenarios by which they could have arisen. Our analyses clearly show that SARS-CoV-2 is not a laboratory construct or a purposefully manipulated virus."

  Nature Publishing Group

  Andersen, Kristian G.; Rambaut, Andrew; Lipkin, W. Ian . . .

  2020-03-17
• Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East [January 14, 2000]

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  From the Abstract: "The primary purpose of this report is to describe the nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons (weapons of mass destruction or WMD) and missile programs of the countries and terrorist groups in the Middle East. An introductory section puts these weapons programs into the context of the region's strategic environment and U.S. national interests. The concluding section discusses briefly the policy options that are available to the U.S. government and to Congress, in particular, to counter the growing threat. The report does not attempt to evaluate the efficacy of current or future policies. As major changes occur in the status of WMD programs, this report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2000-01-14
• Iraq: Post-War Challenges and U.S. Responses, 1991-1998 [Updated March 31, 1999]

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  From the Abstract: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report reviews cease-fire terms that followed the Gulf war in early 1991; highlights provisions that Iraq has tended to violate; describes ensuing confrontations between the United States and Iraq since 1991, together with international reactions; and summarizes related points of congressional interest. The report is designed as a source of ready reference for congressional offices interested in previous instances of use of force by the United States against Iraq after the Gulf war. The report will be updated if similar confrontations continue on a large scale. Related CRS products are IB92117, 'Iraqi Compliance with Cease-Fire Terms,' by Kenneth Katzman, updated regularly; IB94049, 'Iraq-U.S. Confrontation,' 1997- 1999, by Alfred B. Prados and Kenneth Katzman, which describes the most recent and ongoing confrontations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  1999-03-31
• Federal Laws and Legislation on Carrying Concealed Firearms: An Overview [November 22, 2011]

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  "Carrying a concealed firearm is an activity traditionally regulated by the states. Generally, each state has its own concealed carry eligibility laws and requirements, and determines which out-of-state concealed carry permits it will recognize. Although regulating concealed carry has been left to the states, Congress has passed a few laws that authorize certain individuals to carry concealed firearms across state lines, notwithstanding individual state provisions. In addition, it has enacted a measure that permits individuals to carry concealed firearms on federal lands that are units of the National Park System and National Wildlife Refuge System. Yet, in the past few years, Congress has considered measures that would permit nationwide concealed carry and continues to consider legislation that would allow concealed carry on other federal lands. This report first provides an overview of how concealed carry is generally regulated among the states. It then summarizes the federal laws regulating concealed carry. Lastly, it examines the concealed carry legislation pending before 112th Congress. This report does not address carrying firearms on military installations by military personnel."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Chu, Vivian S.

  2011-11-22
• Egypt in Transition [November 18, 2011]

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  From the Summary: "On February 11, 2011, President Hosni Mubarak resigned from the presidency after 29 years in power. For 18 days, a popular peaceful uprising spread across Egypt and ultimately forced Mubarak to cede power to the military. In the wake of Mubarak's resignation, a Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF)--made up entirely of military officers who enjoyed leading positions under Mubarak--has exercised executive authority directly and via an interim cabinet led by Prime Minister Essam Sharaf. The SCAF oversaw a March 2011 referendum that approved amendments to Egypt's constitution, issued a constitutional declaration, and has also issued new laws on the formation of political parties and the conduct of upcoming parliamentary elections. The amended constitution lays out a transition framework in which the elected People's Assembly and Shura Council will, in conjunction with the SCAF, select members for a 100-person constituent assembly to draft a new constitution subject to a referendum in 2012 or 2013. […] The bill authorizes FMF [Foreign Military Financing] grants to be transferred to ESF [Economic Support Fund]. It also states that no funds in the bill may be provided to Egypt unless the Secretary of State certifies to the Committees on Appropriations that such government is meeting its obligations under the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty and that that the Government of Egypt has held free and fair elections and is implementing policies to protect the rights of journalists, due process, and freedoms of expression and association. S. 1601 also authorizes bilateral debt relief for Egypt and up to $60 million in ESF for Egypt to create an Enterprise Fund to support small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2011-11-18
• Postal Reform [Updated December 12, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "Although its short-term financial prospects have suddenly brightened by discovery that retirement obligations are less burdensome than presumed, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) faces severe financial straits in the long term. Business use of the mails is declining as alternatives such as e-mail, faxes, and cell phones substitute for hard copy letters. Despite three rate increases in 18 months, USPS has lost well over $2 billion in the past two years, and is approaching its $15 billion debt limit to the Treasury. It has a negative net worth and mounting obligations for retiree health benefits. USPS would be bankrupt but for the fact that it is a government entity. USPS, its board of governors, GAO, and most mailers' organizations believe that the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 no longer provides a viable business model. It is dependent on rising mail volume to cover the ever-increasing cost of arbitrated labor settlements and the addition of 1.7 million new delivery points each year, yet volume has begun to fall. The highly regulated process of setting rates is cumbersome and tendentious. At congressional request, USPS developed a 'Transformation Plan' that briefly considered, and rejected, the alternatives of privatization and a return to regular agency status with appropriations to cover the costs of universal service."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stevens, Nye

  2002-12-12
• Importing Prescription Drugs [Updated August 22, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "In recent years the rising cost of prescription drugs has become an ongoing issue for Congress. International comparisons of pharmaceutical prices have shown that American consumers, particularly the elderly and uninsured, often pay a lot more for their prescriptions than do citizens in other countries. Frequently this price disparity stems from the fact that some countries, particularly those with nationalized health care systems, can negotiate lower prices due to a greater economy of scale. The lower pharmaceutical prices in these countries are often enough incentive for some U.S. citizens to purchase their prescription drugs from Internet or mail-order pharmacies, or when they travel outside the United States, especially to Canada or Mexico. As this practice has become more common in recent years, legislation has been offered in Congress to make it easier for less costly prescription drugs to be imported from foreign suppliers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vogt, Donna U.; Randall, Blanchard

  2002-08-22
• Potential Risks to the Forest Service's Coronavirus Aid Relief

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  From the Document: "In response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak and its impact on the economy, public health, State and local governments, individuals, and businesses, Congress passed into law the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act). As you are aware, the CARES Act provides more than $70 million in funding to the Forest Service (FS) to assist with relief efforts for various programs identified within the agency. Along with the provisions identified for FS, the CARES Act provided funding to the Office of Inspector General (OIG) to provide oversight of agencies and specific programs that received funding under the CARES Act. OIG may also use its regular appropriations to provide oversight of the United States Department of Agriculture's use of COVID-19 funding."

  United States. Department of Agriculture. Office of the Inspector General

  2020-06
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): Emergency Temporary Standards (ETS) and COVID-19 [Updated June 2, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) does not currently have a specific standard that protects health care or other workers from airborne or aerosol transmission of disease or diseases transmitted by airborne droplets. Some in Congress, and some groups representing health care, meat and poultry processing, and other workers, are calling on OSHA to promulgate an emergency temporary standard (ETS) to protect workers from exposure to SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2], the virus that causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) gives OSHA the ability to promulgate an ETS that would remain in effect for up to six months without going through the normal review and comment process of rulemaking. [...] On January 21, 2021, President Joe Biden issued an executive order directing OSHA to review whether a COVID-19 ETS is necessary and,if necessary, issue an ETS by March 15, 2021. To date, OSHA has not issued a COVID-19 ETS. As of January 14, 2021, OSHA had issued citations from 315 inspections related to COVID-19 resulting in a total of $4,034,288 in proposed civil penalties. These citations have been issued for violations of the OSH Act's General Duty Clause and other existing OSHA standards, such as those for respiratory protection that may apply to COVID-19. Senators Elizabeth Warren and Cory Booker have raised concerns about the low amount of penalties being assessed for COVID-19-related violations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Szymendera, Scott

  2021-06-02