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• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated March 8, 2005]

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  "Under the Bush Administration, U.S.- China-Taiwan relations have undergone a number of changes. Initially, the new Administration seemed to abandon the long-standing U.S. policy of 'strategic ambiguity' on Taiwan in favor of 'strategic clarity' that placed more emphasis on Taiwan's interests and less on PRC [People's Republic of China] concerns. Among other things, President Bush publicly stated that the United States would do 'whatever it takes' to help Taiwan's defense -- a position more supportive of Taiwan than had been articulated by previous U.S. presidents. In April 2001, the President also approved a substantial sale of U.S. weapons to Taiwan, including Kidd-class destroyers, anti-submarine P-3 'Orion' aircraft, and diesel submarines. The White House also was more accommodating to visits from Taiwan officials than previous U.S. Administrations, and permitted visits from Taiwan's president in 2001 and 2003, and from Taiwan's vice president and defense minister in 2002. […] Political trends in Taiwan have raised anxieties about its future and the implications for U.S. policy. Some are concerned that a continued emphasis on 'Taiwan identity' may lead to ethnic polarization and conflict. Others are concerned about the implications that these trends have for a possible declaration of Taiwan independence, which Beijing has vowed to 'pay any price' to prevent. In recent months, political developments in Taiwan appear to be causing the Bush Administration to dial back its earlier enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan. U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to the effect that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. This issue brief tracking the situation in Taiwan will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-03-08
• Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices [Updated March 17, 2005]

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  "Under the Bush Administration, U.S.- China-Taiwan relations have undergone a number of changes. Initially, the new Administration seemed to abandon the long-standing U.S. policy of 'strategic ambiguity' on Taiwan in favor of 'strategic clarity' that placed more emphasis on Taiwan's interests and less on PRC [People's Republic of China] concerns. Among other things, President Bush publicly stated that the United States would do 'whatever it takes' to help Taiwan's defense -- a position more supportive of Taiwan than had been articulated by previous U.S. presidents. In April 2001, the President also approved a substantial sale of U.S. weapons to Taiwan, including Kidd-class destroyers, anti-submarine P-3 'Orion' aircraft, and diesel submarines. The White House also was more accommodating to visits from Taiwan officials than previous U.S. Administrations, and permitted visits from Taiwan's president in 2001 and 2003, and from Taiwan's vice president and defense minister in 2002. […] Political trends in Taiwan have raised anxieties about its future and the implications for U.S. policy. Some are concerned that a continued emphasis on 'Taiwan identity' may lead to ethnic polarization and conflict. Others are concerned about the implications that these trends have for a possible declaration of Taiwan independence, which Beijing has vowed to 'pay any price' to prevent. In recent months, political developments in Taiwan appear to be causing the Bush Administration to dial back its earlier enthusiasm for supporting Taiwan. U.S. officials now appear to be balancing criticisms of the PRC military buildup opposite Taiwan with periodic cautions and warnings to the effect that U.S. support for Taiwan is not unconditional, but has limits. This issue brief tracking the situation in Taiwan will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2005-03-17
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [June 13, 2014]

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  "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report discusses U.S. security assistance for Taiwan, formally called the Republic of China (ROC), particularly policy issues for Congress. It also lists sales of major defense articles and services to Taiwan, as approved by the President and notified to Congress since 1990. This report uses a variety of unclassified consultations and citations in the United States and Taiwan."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2014-06-13
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [June 23, 2014]

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  "Major changes have occurred in campaign finance policy since 2002, when Congress substantially amended campaign finance law via the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA). The Supreme Court's 2010 ruling in 'Citizens United' and a related lower-court decision, ''SpeechNow.org v. FEC [Federal Election Commission],' arguably represent the most fundamental changes to campaign finance law in decades. Citizens United lifted a previous ban on corporate (and union) independent expenditures advocating election or defeat of candidates. 'SpeechNow' permitted unlimited contributions to such expenditures and facilitated the advent of super PACs [Political Action Committees]. Although campaign finance policy remains the subject of intense debate and public interest, there have been few legislative or regulatory changes to respond to the 2010 court rulings. This report considers these and other developments in campaign finance policy and comments on areas of potential conflict and consensus. In another recent major change, the Supreme Court invalidated aggregate contribution limits in April 2014 ('McCutcheon v. FEC'). […] This version of the report includes updated material that emphasizes the issues most prominently before the 113th Congress. It also discusses foundational information about major elements of campaign finance policy. Some issues discussed in previous versions of the report, which appear to be less timely than they were in the past, have been excluded from this version. This report will be updated occasionally to reflect major developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2014-06-23
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [June 5, 2014]

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  "As of this writing, two campaign finance bills have become law during the 113th Congress. On December 26, 2013, President Obama signed H.R. 3487. The law extends Federal Election Commission (FEC) authority to conduct the Administrative Fine Program. In addition, on April 3, 2014, President Obama signed H.R. 2019, which terminates public financing for presidential nominating conventions. Other bills have been the subject of hearings, markups, or both in the House or Senate. H.R. 94 and H.R. 95 would repeal part or all of the presidential public financing program. H.R. 1994 would repeal the Election Assistance Commission and return some functions to the FEC. S. 375 would require Senate political committees to electronically file campaign finance reports with the FEC. Two Financial Services appropriations measures contain provisions related to campaign finance. H.R. 2786 would prohibit disclosure of certain political spending as a condition of the government-contracting process. S. 1371 would require electronic filing of Senate campaign finance reports. S.J.Res. 19 proposes a constitutional amendment permitting regulating 'money and in-kind equivalents with respect to Federal elections.' [...] This version of the report includes updated material that emphasizes the issues most prominently before the 113th Congress. It also discusses foundational information about major elements of campaign finance policy. Some issues discussed in previous versions of the report, which appear to be less timely than they were in the past, have been excluded from this version. This report will be updated occasionally to reflect major developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2014-06-05
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [April 22, 2014]

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  As of this writing, two campaign finance bills have become law during the 113th Congress. On December 26, 2013, President Obama signed H.R. [House Resolution] 3487. The law extends Federal Election Commission (FEC) authority to conduct the Administrative Fine Program. In addition, on April 3, 2014, President Obama signed H.R. 2019, which terminates public financing for presidential nominating conventions. Other bills have been the subject of hearings, markups, or both in the House or Senate. H.R. 94 and H.R. 95 would repeal part or all of the presidential public financing program. H.R. 1994 would repeal the Election Assistance Commission and return some functions to the FEC. S. 375 would require Senate political committees to electronically file campaign finance reports with the FEC. Two Financial Services appropriations measures contain provisions related to campaign finance. H.R. 2786 would prohibit disclosure of certain political spending as a condition of the government-contracting process. S. 1371 would require electronic filing of Senate campaign finance reports. In addition, on September 23, 2013, the Senate confirmed two nominees to the Federal Election Commission. [...] This version of the report includes updated material that emphasizes the issues most prominently before the 113th Congress. It also discusses foundational information about major elements of campaign finance policy. Some issues discussed in previous versions of the report, which appear to be less timely than they were in the past, have been excluded from this version. This report will be updated occasionally to reflect major developments.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2014-04-22
• Syria: Overview of the Humanitarian Response [May 30, 2014]

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  "The ongoing conflict in Syria has created one of the most pressing humanitarian crises in the world. More than three years later, as of late May 2014, an estimated 9.3 million people inside Syria, nearly half the population, have been affected by the conflict, with nearly 6.5 million displaced. In addition, 2.8 million Syrians are displaced as refugees, with 97% fleeing to countries in the immediate surrounding region, including Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and other parts of North Africa. The situation is fluid and continues to worsen, while humanitarian needs are immense and increase daily. […] The United States has a critical voice regarding humanitarian access in Syria, the pace of humanitarian developments and contingency planning, support to neighboring countries that are hosting refugees, and burdensharing among donors. This report examines the ongoing humanitarian crisis in Syria and the U.S. and international response and will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda; Chesser, Susan G.

  2014-05-30
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2015 Budget and Appropriations [May 27, 2014]

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  "The annual State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs appropriations bill (also referred to here as 'foreign affairs appropriations' or 'foreign affairs funding') is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making. (Foreign relations authorization and foreign assistance authorization legislation, required by law prior to State Department and foreign aid expenditures, are also available to Congress to influence foreign policy, but Congress has not passed either since FY2003 and FY1985, respectively. Instead, Congress has waived the requirement within the appropriations laws.) On March 4, 2014, the Obama Administration submitted to Congress its budget request for FY2015. The request for State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs totals $48.62 billion, which is 1.3% below the FY2014 estimated funding level of $49.29 billion. Within the request, $5.91 billion is designated as Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) funding, which is 9.3% below the FY2014 estimated OCO funding of $6.52 billion. Of the total request, $16.81 billion is for State Department Operations and related agencies, a 6.0% increase from the FY2014 funding estimate of $15.86 billion. Much of the requested increase is for U.S. Contributions to International Organizations (CIO) and Contributions to International Peacekeeping (CIPA) accounts. For Foreign Operations, the Administration is requesting $31.81 billion, a 6.1% decrease from the FY2014 estimate of $33.87 billion."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Tiersky, Alex L.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2014-05-27
• Supreme Court Appointment Process: Roles of the President, Judiciary Committee, and Senate [Updated July 6, 2005]

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  "The appointment of a Supreme Court Justice is an infrequent event of major significance in American politics. Each appointment is important because of the enormous judicial power the Supreme Court exercises as the highest appellate court in the federal judiciary. Appointments are infrequent, as a vacancy on the nine-member Court may occur only once or twice, or never at all, during a particular President's years in office. Under the Constitution, Justices on the Supreme Court receive lifetime appointments. Such job security in the government has been conferred solely on judges and, by constitutional design, helps insure the Court's independence from the President and Congress. [...] Over more than two centuries, a recurring theme in the Supreme Court appointment process has been the assumed need for excellence in a nominee. However, politics also has played an important role in Supreme Court appointments. The political nature of the appointment process becomes especially apparent when a President submits a nominee with controversial views, there are sharp partisan or ideological differences between the President and the Senate, or the outcome of important constitutional issues before the Court is seen to be at stake."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rutkus, Denis Steven

  2005-07-06
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2013 Budget and Appropriations [July 23, 2012]

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  "The 112th Congress is considering FY2013 international affairs funding within the context of the Budget Control Act (P.L. 112-25) that established discretionary spending limits for FY2012- FY2021 and contains automatic budget reductions (sequestration) on discretionary spending to begin on January 2, 2013. International affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1.5% of the total federal budget. While some foreign policy and defense experts view that share as a small price to pay for a robust foreign affairs budget that they believe is essential to meeting national security and foreign policy objectives, others see international affairs spending, particularly foreign aid, as an attractive target for significant spending cuts in order to reduce deficit spending. Many expect a delay in passing the FY2013 foreign affairs budget and most of the other appropriations bills until after the November 2012 elections (two months into the new fiscal year), which may have more to do with election year politics, however, than lawmakers' differing views on foreign affairs spending. […] This report analyzes the FY2013 request and congressional action related to FY2013 State-Foreign Operations legislation. Updates will occur to reflect congressional actions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Tiersky, Alex L.

  2012-07-23
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2012 Budget and Appropriations [August 6, 2011]

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  "Some in the 112th Congress view the foreign affairs budget as a place to cut funds in order to reduce the budget deficit. Foreign affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1% of the annual budget. Others, including Members of Congress of both political parties, view a robust foreign affairs budget as essential for America's national security and foreign policy interests. The State Department, Foreign Operations, and Related Agencies appropriations bills, in addition to funding U.S. diplomatic and foreign aid activities, have been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years. (Congress has not amended foreign policy issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985.) After a period of general decline in the late 1980s and 1990s, funding for State Department operations, international broadcasting, and foreign aid rose steadily from FY2002 to FY2010, largely because of ongoing assistance to Iraq and Afghanistan, new global health programs, and increasing assistance to Pakistan. It declined again in FY2011 when Congress passed a continuing resolution (P.L. 112-10) significantly reducing U.S. government-wide expenditures, including foreign affairs. Funding for international affairs programs is expected to continue declining as the 112th Congress focuses on budget reduction measures in all appropriations for the next decade to meet objectives in the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25). […] The House-passed FY2012 budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 34, agreed to on April 15, 2011) calls for significant cuts in the foreign affairs budget. It provides $45.3 billion in new budget authority for international affairs programs, as compared to the House and Senate committee-approved allocation of $54 billion the previous year. The Senate did not pass an FY2012 budget resolution. This report analyzes the FY2012 request, including State Department, international broadcasting, and foreign aid highlights; recent-year funding trends; and congressional action related to FY2012 State-Foreign Operations legislation. This report will be updated to reflect congressional action. For details on the FY2011 State-Foreign Operations Appropriations, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R41228, 'State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2011-08-06
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2012 Budget and Appropriations [November 23, 2011]

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  "Some in the 112th Congress view the foreign affairs budget as a place to cut funds in order to reduce the budget deficit. Foreign affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1% of the annual budget. Others, including Members of Congress of both political parties, view a robust foreign affairs budget as essential for America's national security and foreign policy interests. The State Department, Foreign Operations, and Related Agencies appropriations bills, in addition to funding U.S. diplomatic and foreign aid activities, have been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years. (Congress has not amended foreign policy issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985.) […] This report focuses on the $59.65 billion requested for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill, which excludes some portions of the International Affairs request such as certain commissions and foreign food aid requested as part of other budget functions. The Administration's FY2012 budget request seeks significant increases for State Department's administration of foreign affairs accounts, security assistance, and various multilateral environmental accounts. Programs for which the Administration recommended significantly reduced funding, compared with enacted FY2011 levels, are funding for the East- West Center, Debt Restructuring, and Emergency Refugee and Migration assistance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2011-11-23
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2012 Budget and Appropriations [October 6, 2011]

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  "Some in the 112th Congress view the foreign affairs budget as a place to cut funds in order to reduce the budget deficit. Foreign affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1% of the annual budget. Others, including Members of Congress of both political parties, view a robust foreign affairs budget as essential for America's national security and foreign policy interests. The State Department, Foreign Operations, and Related Agencies appropriations bills, in addition to funding U.S. diplomatic and foreign aid activities, have been the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. international affairs budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making in recent years. (Congress has not amended foreign policy issues through a complete authorization process for State Department diplomatic activities since 2003 and for foreign aid programs since 1985.) […] This report focuses on the $59.65 billion requested for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill, which excludes some portions of the International Affairs request such as certain commissions and foreign food aid requested as part of other budget functions. The Administration's FY2012 budget request seeks significant increases for State Department's administration of foreign affairs accounts, security assistance, and various multilateral environmental accounts. Programs for which the Administration recommended significantly reduced funding, compared with enacted FY2011 levels, are funding for the East- West Center, Debt Restructuring, and Emergency Refugee and Migration assistance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2011-10-06
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated August 8, 2003]

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  "Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria's opposition to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-08-08
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated April 11, 2003]

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  "U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-04-11
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated July 3, 2003]

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  "Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria's opposition to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-07-03
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated October 10, 2003]

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  "Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria's opposition to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional and international issues such as the war on terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-10-10
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated September 17, 2003]

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  "Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria's opposition to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-09-17
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated January 23, 2003]

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  "U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-23
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated June 9, 2003]

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  "Although U.S.-Syrian relations improved somewhat in the 1990s, further strains appeared after the breakdown in Syrian-Israeli negotiations in 2000 and Syria's opposition to a U.S. military campaign in Iraq. Members of Congress have periodically introduced legislation to tighten U.S. sanctions against Syria or to condition relaxation of existing restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and support other U.S. initiatives. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-06-09
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated May 24, 2005]

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  "Syria, governed by President Hafiz al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June 2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East scene. Within the region, a number of border disputes, problems of resource allocation, and political rivalries have caused frequent tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In particular, the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967, has been one of the most intractable issues in the Arab-Israeli dispute. […] On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175. This act imposes additional sanctions against Syria unless it halts support for terrorism, withdraws troops from Lebanon, ends its occupation of Lebanon, ceases development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and ceases support for terrorist activity in Iraq. Subsequently, on May 11, 2004, the President issued Executive Order 13338 to implement the provisions of this law. The conference report (H.Rept. 108-792) to the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (Division D of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005) contains a provision making funds available for democracy, human rights, and rule of law programs for Syria, but does not set a dollar amount for these programs in the case of Syria. President Bush signed the bill as P.L. 108-447 on December 8, 2004."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2005-05-24
• Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated April 20, 2005]

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  "Syria, governed by President Hafiz al-Asad from 1970 until his death in June 2000, is a prominent player in the Middle East scene. Within the region, a number of border disputes, problems of resource allocation, and political rivalries have caused frequent tensions between Syria and its neighbors. In particular, the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967, has been one of the most intractable issues in the Arab-Israeli dispute. […] On December 12, 2003, President Bush signed the Syria Accountability Act, H.R. 1828, as P.L. 108-175. This act imposes additional sanctions against Syria unless it halts support for terrorism, withdraws troops from Lebanon, ends its occupation of Lebanon, ceases development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and ceases support for terrorist activity in Iraq. Subsequently, on May 11, 2004, the President issued Executive Order 13338 to implement the provisions of this law. The conference report (H.Rept. 108-792) to the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (Division D of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2005) contains a provision making funds available for democracy, human rights, and rule of law programs for Syria, but does not set a dollar amount for these programs in the case of Syria. President Bush signed the bill as P.L. 108-447 on December 8, 2004."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2005-04-20
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [November 27, 2013]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. […] In 2008, congressional concerns mounted about a suspected 'freeze' in President Bush's notifications to Congress on arms sales. On October 3, 2008, Bush finally notified Congress. However, he submitted six of the eight pending programs (not a 'package') for a combined value of $6.5 billion. Despite the concerns in 2008, President Obama repeated that cycle to wait to submit formal notifications for congressional review all at one time (on January 29, 2010) of five major programs with a total value of $6.4 billion and again (on September 21, 2011) of three major programs with a total value of $5.9 billion, including upgrades for Taiwan's existing F-16A/B fighters. Like Bush, President Obama has not notified the sub design program (the only one pending from decisions in 2001) and has not accepted Taiwan's formal request for new F-16C/D fighters (pending since 2006). Taiwan is interested in U.S. Navy excess Perry-class frigates. Legislation in the 113th Congress includes H.R. 419 (Ros-Lehtinen), S. 12 (Coats), H.R. 1960 (McKeon), H.R. 3470 (Royce), S. 1197 (Levin), and S. 1683 (Menendez)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2013-11-27
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [January 9, 2014]

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  "Minor and major changes have occurred in campaign finance policy since 2002, when Congress substantially amended campaign finance law via the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA). The Supreme Court's 2010 ruling in 'Citizens United v. FEC [Federal Election Committee]' and a related lower-court decision, 'SpeechNow.org v. FEC,' arguably represent the most fundamental changes to campaign finance law in decades. 'Citizens United' lifted a previous ban on corporate (and union) independent expenditures advocating election or defeat of candidates. 'SpeechNow' permitted unlimited contributions to such expenditures and facilitated the advent of super PACs [Political Action Committee]. Although campaign finance policy remains the subject of intense debate and public interest, there have been few legislative or regulatory changes to respond to the 2010 court rulings. This report considers these and other developments in campaign finance policy and comments on areas of potential conflict and consensus. […] Debate has also continued at federal agencies and in the courts. Debate in Congress and elsewhere has continued over the FEC's enforcement practices. The commission also has yet to issue anticipated rules implementing 'Citizens United' and some other litigation. Amid apparent stalemate at the FEC, some observers have called for an increased role for federal agencies, such as the Federal Communications Commission, Internal Revenue Service, or Securities and Exchange Commission in policy areas related to campaign finance policy--a topic that remains controversial. The Supreme Court is also considering a challenge to aggregate individual contribution limits ('McCutcheon v. FEC')."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2014-01-09
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [November 18, 2013]

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  "Minor and major changes have occurred in campaign finance policy since 2002, when Congress substantially amended campaign finance law via the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA). The Supreme Court's 2010 ruling in 'Citizens United v. FEC' and a related lower-court decision, 'SpeechNow.org v. FEC', arguably represent the most fundamental changes to campaign finance law in decades. 'Citizens United' lifted a previous ban on corporate (and union) independent expenditures advocating election or defeat of candidates. 'SpeechNow' permitted unlimited contributions to such expenditures and facilitated the advent of super PACs. Although campaign finance policy remains the subject of intense debate and public interest, there have been few legislative or regulatory changes to respond to the 2010 court rulings. This report considers these and other developments in campaign finance policy and comments on areas of potential conflict and consensus. […] This version of the report includes updated material that emphasizes the issues most prominently before the 113th Congress. It also discusses foundational information about major elements of campaign finance policy. Some issues discussed in previous versions of the report, which appear to be less timely than they were in the past, have been excluded from this version. This report will be updated occasionally to reflect major developments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2013-11-18
• State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress [November 7, 2013]

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  "Minor and major changes have occurred in campaign finance policy since 2002, when Congress substantially amended campaign finance law via the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA). The Supreme Court's 2010 ruling in 'Citizens United v. FEC' and a related lower-court decision, 'SpeechNow.org v. FEC', arguably represent the most fundamental changes to campaign finance law in decades. 'Citizens United' lifted a previous ban on corporate (and union) independent expenditures advocating election or defeat of candidates. 'SpeechNow' permitted unlimited contributions to such expenditures and facilitated the advent of super PACs. Although campaign finance policy remains the subject of intense debate and public interest, there have been few legislative or regulatory changes to respond to the 2010 court rulings. This report considers these and other developments in campaign finance policy and comments on areas of potential conflict and consensus."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2013-11-07
• Tax Provisions Expiring in 2013 ('Tax Extenders') [November 5, 2013]

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  "Dozens of temporary tax provisions are scheduled to expire at the end of 2013 under current law. Most of the provisions set to expire in 2013 have been part of past temporary tax extension legislation. Most recently, many temporary tax provisions were extended as part of the American Taxpayer Relief Act (ATRA; P.L. 112-240). Collectively, temporary tax provisions that are regularly extended by Congress--often for one to two years--rather than being allowed to expire as scheduled are often referred to as 'tax extenders.' […] There are several reasons why Congress may choose to enact tax provisions on a temporary basis. Enacting provisions on a temporary basis provides legislators with an opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of tax policies prior to expiration or extension. Temporary tax provisions may also be used to provide temporary economic stimulus or disaster relief. Congress may also choose to enact tax provisions on a temporary rather than permanent basis due to budgetary considerations, as the foregone revenue from a temporary provision will generally be less than if it was permanent. The provisions that are scheduled to expire in 2013 are diverse in purpose, including provisions for individuals, businesses, the charitable sector, energy, community assistance, and disaster relief. Among the individual provisions scheduled to expire are deductions for teachers' out-of-pocket expenses, state and local sales taxes, qualified tuition and related expenses, and mortgage insurance premiums."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sherlock, Molly F.

  2013-11-05
• Tax Deductions for Individuals: A Summary [January 8, 2014]

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  "Every tax filer has the option to claim deductions when filing their income tax return. Deductions serve four main purposes in the tax code: (1) to account for large, unusual, and necessary personal expenditures, such as extraordinary medical expenses; (2) to encourage certain types of activities, such as homeownership and charitable contributions; (3) to ease the burden of taxes paid to state and local governments; and (4) to adjust for the expenses of earning income, such as unreimbursed employee expenses. Some tax deductions can be taken by individuals even if they do not itemize. These deductions are commonly referred to as above-the-line deductions, because they reduce a tax filer's adjusted gross income (AGI, or the line). In contrast, itemized and standard deductions are referred to as below-the-line deductions, because they are applied after AGI is calculated to arrive at taxable income. Tax filers have the option to claim either a standard deduction or to itemize certain deductions. The standard deduction, which is based on filing status, is, among other things, intended to reduce the complexity of paying taxes, as it requires no additional documentation. Alternatively, tax filers claiming itemized deductions must list each item separately on their tax return and be able to provide documentation that the expenditures being deducted have been made. Only tax filers with deductions that can be itemized in excess of the standard deduction find it worthwhile to itemize. Whichever deduction the tax filer claims--standard or itemized--the amount is subtracted from AGI."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lowry, Sean

  2014-01-08
• Supreme Court Appointment Process: Roles of the President, Judiciary Committee, and Senate [February 19, 2010]

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  "The appointment of a Supreme Court Justice is an event of major significance in American politics. Each appointment is of consequence because of the enormous judicial power the Supreme Court exercises as the highest appellate court in the federal judiciary. Appointments are usually infrequent, as a vacancy on the nine-member Court may occur only once or twice, or never at all, during a particular President's years in office. Under the Constitution, Justices on the Supreme Court receive lifetime appointments. Such job security in the government has been conferred solely on judges and, by constitutional design, helps insure the Court's independence from the President and Congress. [...] Over more than two centuries, a recurring theme in the Supreme Court appointment process has been the assumed need for excellence in a nominee. However, politics also has played an important role in Supreme Court appointments. The political nature of the appointment process becomes especially apparent when a President submits a nominee with controversial views, there are sharp partisan or ideological differences between the President and the Senate, or the outcome of important constitutional issues before the Court is seen to be at stake."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rutkus, Denis Steven

  2010-02-19
• Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990 [November 29, 2012]

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  "This report, updated as warranted, discusses U.S. security assistance to Taiwan, or Republic of China (ROC), including policy issues for Congress and legislation. Congress has oversight of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), P.L. [Public Law] 96-8, which has governed arms sales to Taiwan since 1979, when the United States recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) instead of the ROC. Two other relevant parts of the 'one China' policy are the August 17, 1982, U.S.-PRC Joint Communique and the 'Six Assurances' to Taiwan. U.S. arms sales to Taiwan have been significant. The United States also expanded military ties with Taiwan after the PRC's missile firings in 1995-1996. However, the U.S.-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty terminated in 1979."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2012-11-29