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• Visa Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [March 4, 2004]

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  Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States on temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOSs Consular Affairs remains responsible for issuing visas, DHSs Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHSs Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2004-03-04
• U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [February 18, 2004]

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  When President George W. Bush announced his principles for immigration reform in January 2004, he included an increase in permanent immigration as a key component. Some commentators are speculating the President is promoting increases in the employment-based categories of permanent immigration, but the Bush Administration has not yet provided specific information on what categories of permanent admissions it advocates should be increased and by what levels. The Bush proposal has prompted a lively debate on immigration reform. Four major principles underlie U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin. These principles are embodied in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The INA specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that give priorities for permanent immigration reflecting these principles. As defined in the INA, "immigrants" are synonymous with legal permanent residents (LPRs) and refer to foreign nationals who live lawfully and permanently in the United States. The "Mass Immigration Reduction Act" (H.R. 946), which would, if enacted, reduce permanent immigration, was introduced early in the 108th Congress. It would zero out family-sponsored immigrants (except children and spouses of U.S. citizens), employment-based immigrants (except certain priority workers) and diversity lottery immigrants through FY2008.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2004-02-18
• Visa Waiver Program [February 10, 2004]

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  Since the events of September 11, 2001, concerns have been raised about the ability of terrorists to enter the United States under the visa waiver program. The visa waiver program (VWP) allows nationals from certain countries to enter the United States as temporary visitors (nonimmigrants) for business or pleasure without first obtaining a visa from a U.S. consulate abroad. Temporary visitors for business or pleasure from non-VWP countries must obtain a visa from Department of State (DOS) officers at a consular post abroad before coming to the United States. The VWP constitutes one of a few exceptions under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) in which foreign nationals are admitted into the United States without a valid visa. Under Department of Homeland Security (DHS) regulations, travelers who seek to enter the United States through the VWP are not subject to the biometric requirements of the US-VISIT program. By eliminating the visa requirement, this program facilitates international travel and commerce and eases consular office workloads abroad, but it also bypasses the first step by which foreign visitors are screened for admissibility to enter the United States. In 2003, 13.5 million visitors entered the United States under this program, constituting 49% of all overseas visitors.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Siskin, Alison

  2004-02-10
• War in Afghanistan: Strategy, Military Operations, and Issues for Congress [June 8, 2010]

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  "With a deteriorating security situation and no comprehensive political outcome yet in sight, most observers view the war in Afghanistan as open-ended [...] For the United States, the war in Afghanistan concerns the security of Afghanistan and the region, including denying safe haven to terrorists and helping ensure a stable regional security balance. For regional states, including India and Russia as well as Afghanistan's neighbors Pakistan and Iran, the war may have a powerful impact on the future balance of power and influence in the region [...] Since 2001, the character of the war in Afghanistan has evolved from a violent struggle against al Qaeda and its Taliban supporters to a multi-faceted counterinsurgency (COIN) effort. In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in order to end the ability of the Taliban regime to provide safe haven to al Qaeda and to put a stop to al Qaeda's use of the territory of Afghanistan as a base of operations for terrorist activities [...] In his December 3, 2009, speech President Obama identified several objectives in Afghanistan and Pakistan: (1) disrupt, dismantle, and defeat al Qaeda; (2) deny al Qaeda a safe haven; (3) reverse the Taliban's momentum and deny it the ability to overthrow the government; and (4) strengthen the capacity of the Afghan security forces and government to better protect and serve population centers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowman, Steve; Dale, Catherine

  2010-06-08
• War in Afghanistan: Strategy, Military Operations, and Issues for Congress [December 3, 2009]

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  "The U.S. government faces key strategic and operational decisions about its further engagement in the war in Afghanistan. These may include clarifying U.S. national interests in Afghanistan and the region; defining clear strategic objectives based on those interests; determining which diplomatic, economic, and military approaches to adopt, and what resources to commit to support those approaches; prioritizing 'Afghanistan' versus other national security imperatives; and helping marshal a coordinated application of international efforts. Avenues available to Congress for exercising oversight include authorizing and appropriating funding for U.S. efforts in Afghanistan and the region; shaping policy through directive legislation; holding oversight hearings to assess policy execution; and adjusting Administration reporting requirements. This report provides analysis of current developments and future options concerning the war in Afghanistan. It will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bowman, Steve; Dale, Catherine

  2009-12-03
• Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [August 13, 2009]

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  In January 2005, Viktor Yushchenko became Ukraine's new President after massive demonstrations helped to overturn the former regime's electoral fraud in what has been dubbed the 'Orange Revolution,' after Yushchenko's campaign color. Some hoped Ukraine might finally embark on a path of comprehensive reforms and Euro-Atlantic integration after nearly 15 years of half-measures and false starts. However, infighting within his governing coalition hampered economic reforms and led to disillusionment among Orange Revolution supporters. A longrunning power struggle between Yushchenko and Prime Minister Yuliya Tymoshenko has paralyzed policy making, resulting in widespread public disgust with the Ukrainian political class as a whole. New presidential elections are scheduled for January 17, 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.

  2009-08-13
• United Arab Emirates Nuclear Program and Proposed U.S. Nuclear Cooperation [December 23, 2009]

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  "In the 111th Congress, legislation (H.R. 364) has been introduced that would have required President Obama to certify that the UAE had taken a number of steps to strengthen its export controls and stem illicit trade with Iran before any agreement could come into effect or related U.S. exports of nuclear technology to the UAE could be approved. In 2007, the UAE adopted a stronger export control law, but has yet to issue implementing regulations for the law or to fully staff a national export control body to enforce it. In the interim, export control enforcement functions remain the responsibility of authorities in the UAE's individual emirates, in coordination with a new national interagency Committee on Commodities Subject to Import and Export Control established in April 2009. According to UAE officials, cooperation with the United States has resulted in a number of joint interdiction operations. This report provides background information on the UAE nuclear program, reviews developments to date, analyzes proposed nuclear cooperation with the United States, and discusses relevant legislative proposals and options."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchard, Christopher M.

  2009-12-23
• USA Patriot Act Sunset: Provisions that Expire on December 31, 2005 [Updated June 10, 2004]

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  "Several sections of Title II of the USA PATRIOT Act (the Act) relating to enhanced foreign intelligence and law enforcement surveillance authority expire on December 31, 2005. Thereafter, the authority remains in effect only as it relates to foreign intelligence investigations begun before sunset or to offenses or potential offense begun or occurring before that date. There may be some disagreement of whether a 'potential offense' is a suspected crime, an incomplete crime, or both. The consequences of sunset are not the same for every expiring section. In some instances the temporary provision has been replaced with a permanent one; in some, other provisions have been made temporary by attached to an expiring section; in still others, the apparent impact of termination has been mitigated by related provisions either in the Act or elsewhere… This report is available in an abridged version (without its footnotes, chart, and most of its citations to authority) as CRS Report RS21704, 'USA PATRIOT Act Sunset: A Sketch.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2004-06-10
• U.S. Assistance to Vietnam [Updated December 3, 2004]

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  "U.S.-Vietnam diplomatic and economic relations were non-existent for more than fifteen years following communist North Vietnam's victory in 1975 over U.S. ally South Vietnam. Normalization of relations, particularly in the economic sphere, between the United States and unified Vietnam began in earnest in the 1990s. In recent years, many Members of Congress have become interested in linking U.S. aid to the human rights situation in Vietnam. One initiative, H.R. 1587, proposes capping existing non-humanitarian U.S. assistance programs to the Vietnamese government at FY2004 levels if the President does not certify that Vietnam is making "substantial progress" in human rights, including religious freedom. In the near term, if enacted, the substantive impact of H.R. 1587 on U.S. aid would likely be negligible because at present, no U.S. non-humanitarian assistance is given directly to the government of Vietnam. Thus, if enacted, the bill's principal impact is likely to be symbolic. Proponents of the measure argue that it would pressure the Vietnamese government to improve the country's human rights situation. Critics argue that the bill could chill the warming of bilateral political and security ties that has been taking place slowly over the past several months. On July 19, 2004, the House passed H.R. 1587. Attempts to include stripped-down versions of the measure in the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 4818) did not succeed. U.S. bilateral assistance programs are likely to come under additional scrutiny in the future. This report quantifies and briefly describes U.S. assistance programs to Vietnam."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manyin, Mark E.

  2004-12
• U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 1996-2003 [December 8, 2004]

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  "This report provides background data on United States arms sales agreements with and deliveries to its major purchasers during calendar years 1996-2003. In a series of data tables, it lists the total dollar values of U.S. arms sales agreements with its top five purchasers in five specific regions of the world for three periods: 1996-1999, 2000-2003, and 2003 alone, and the total dollar values of U.S. arms deliveries to its top five purchasers in those same regions for the periods 1996-1999, 2000-2003, and for 2003 alone. In addition, the report provides data tables listing the total dollar values of U.S. arms agreements with and deliveries to its top 10 purchasers worldwide for the periods 1996-1999, 2000-2003, and for 2003. This report is prepared in conjunction with the annual CRS report for Congress entitled: Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1996-2003 (CRS Report RL32547). That report details both U.S. and foreign arms transfer activities globally, and provides analysis of arms trade trends. The intent here is to complement that elaborate worldwide treatment of the international arms trade by providing only the dollar values of United States arms sales agreements with and delivery values to its leading customers, by geographic region, for the calendar years 1996 1999, 2000-2003, and 2003. Unlike CRS Report RL32547, this report focuses exclusively on U.S. arms sales, provides the specific names of the major U.S. arms customers, by region, together with the total dollar values of their arms purchases or deliveries. This report will not be revised."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2004-12-08
• Venezuela: Issues in the 111th Congress [November 24, 2010]

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  "The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, a major supplier of foreign oil, but there has been friction in relations for almost a decade under the government of populist President Hugo Chávez. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about human rights, Venezuela's military arms purchases, its relations with Cuba and Iran, and its efforts to export its brand of populism to other Latin American countries. Declining cooperation on anti-drug and antiterrorism efforts has also been a concern. In September 2008, bilateral relations worsened when President Chávez expelled the U.S. Ambassador to Venezuela, and the United States responded in kind. Under the Obama Administration, Venezuela and the United States reached an agreement for the return of respective ambassadors in July 2009. While some observers were hopeful that the return of ambassadors would mark an improvement in relations, this has not been the case. [...] As in past years, there have been concerns in the 111th Congress regarding the state of Venezuela's democracy and human rights situation and its deepening relations with Iran. On July 1, 2010, President Obama signed into law the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Disinvestment Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-195), which includes a provision making gasoline sales to Iran subject to U.S. sanctions. (In 2009, Venezuela had promised to supply some gasoline to Iran in the case of U.S. sanctions.) In June 2010, the Senate Committee on Armed Services reported S. 3454, the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2011, with a provision requiring a report on Venezuela related to terrorism issues. Among other initiatives, H.R. 375 and H.R. 2475 would place restrictions on nuclear cooperation with countries assisting the nuclear programs of Venezuela; H.Res. 174 and H.Con.Res. 124 would express concern about anti-Semitism in Venezuela; H.Res. 872 would call for the designation of Venezuela as a state sponsor of terrorism; S.Res. 428 would express concerns about violations of civil liberties; and S.Res. 645 would express support for free and fair elections and freedom of expression in Venezuela."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2010-11-24
• U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [September 30, 2010]

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  "India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India. U.S. nuclear cooperation is governed by the Atomic Energy Act (AEA). P.L. 109-401, which President Bush signed into law on December 18, 2006, provides waivers of several provisions of the AEA (Sections 123 a. (2), 128, and 129). It requires that several steps occur before nuclear cooperation can proceed. On September 10, 2008, President Bush submitted to Congress a written determination that these requirements had been met. That same day, the President submitted the text of the proposed agreement, which had not yet been signed. The President also submitted a written determination (also required by the AEA) 'that the performance of the proposed agreement will promote and will not constitute an unreasonable risk to, the common defense and security.' In addition, President Bush submitted several documents, including classified and unclassified versions of a Nuclear Proliferation Assessment Statement, which is required by section 123 of the AEA. The Department of State also submitted a report required by P.L. 109- 401 on various aspects of the agreement."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kerr, Paul K.

  2010-09-30
• U.S.-Japan Economic Relations: Significance, Prospects, and Policy Options [March 11, 2010]

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  "Japan and the United States are the two largest economic powers. Together they account for over 30% of world domestic product, for a significant portion of international trade in goods and services, and for a major portion of international investment. This economic clout makes the United States and Japan potentially powerful actors in the world economy. Economic conditions in the United States and Japan have a significant impact on the rest of the world. Furthermore, the U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship can influence economic conditions in other countries. [...] During the last decade policy leaders seem to have made a deliberate effort to drastically reduce the friction that prevailed in the economic relationship. On the one hand, this calmer environment has stabilized the bilateral relationship and permitted the two countries to focus their attention on other issues of mutual interest, such as national security. On the other hand, as some have argued, the friendlier environment masks serious problems that require more attention, such as continuing Japanese failure to resolve long-standing market access barriers to U.S. exports of autos and auto parts and flat glass and the failure of the two countries to reduce bilateral trade imbalances. Failure to resolve any of these outstanding issues could cause heightened friction between the two countries. [...] U.S.-Japan economic relations will likely be dominated directly or indirectly by the economic problems the two countries are now facing. Both Japan and the United States are grappling with the effects of the global financial crisis that has resulted in an economic downturn. Both the United States and Japan have shown signs of economic recovery."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2010-03-11
• U.S. Initiatives to Promote Global Internet Freedom: Issues, Policy, and Technology [April 5, 2010]

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  "Modern means of communications, led by the Internet, provide a relatively inexpensive, open, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, pictures, and text around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on specified news events, the Internet has become an alternative source of media, and sometimes a means to organize politically. [...] Legislation now under consideration in the 111th Congress would mandate that U.S. companies selling Internet technologies and services to repressive countries take actions to combat censorship and protect personally identifiable information. Some believe, however, that technology can offer a complementary and, in some cases, better and more easily implemented solution to some of those issues. They argue that hardware and Internet services, in and of themselves, are neutral elements of the Internet; it is how they are implemented by various countries that is repressive. Also, Internet services are often tailored for deployment to specific countries; however, such tailoring is done to bring the company in line with the laws of that country, not with the intention of allowing the country to repress and censor its citizenry. In many cases, that tailoring would not raise many questions about free speech and political repression. This report provides information regarding the role of U.S. and other foreign companies in facilitating Internet censorship by repressive regimes overseas. The report is divided into several sections: Examination of repressive policies in China and Iran; Relevant U.S. laws; U.S. policies to promote Internet freedom; Private sector initiatives; and Congressional action. Two appendixes describe technologies and mechanisms for censorship and circumvention of government restrictions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Addis, Casey L.

  2010-04-05
• U.S. Initiatives to Promote Global Internet Freedom: Issues, Policy, and Technology [March 17, 2010]

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  "Modern means of communications, led by the Internet, provide a relatively inexpensive, open, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, pictures, and text around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on specified news events, the Internet has become an alternative source of media, and sometimes a means to organize politically. [...] Legislation now under consideration in the 111th Congress would mandate that U.S. companies selling Internet technologies and services to repressive countries take actions to combat censorship and protect personally identifiable information. Some believe, however, that technology can offer a complementary and, in some cases, better and more easily implemented solution to some of those issues. They argue that hardware and Internet services, in and of themselves, are neutral elements of the Internet; it is how they are implemented by various countries that is repressive. Also, Internet services are often tailored for deployment to specific countries; however, such tailoring is done to bring the company in line with the laws of that country, not with the intention of allowing the country to repress and censor its citizenry. In many cases, that tailoring would not raise many questions about free speech and political repression. This report provides information regarding the role of U.S. and other foreign companies in facilitating Internet censorship by repressive regimes overseas. The report is divided into several sections: Examination of repressive policies in China and Iraq; Relevant U.S. laws; U.S. policies to promote Internet freedom; Private sector initiatives, and Congressional action. Two appendixes describe technologies and mechanisms for censorship and circumvention of government restrictions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Addis, Casey L.

  2010-03-17
• U.S.-Vietnam Economic and Trade Relations: Issues for the 111th Congress [May 3, 2010]

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  "After more than two decades of virtually no economic contact, the United States and Vietnam reestablished trade relations during the 1990s. Since then, Vietnam has rapidly risen to become a significant trading partner for the United States. Bilateral trade has risen from about $220 million in 1994 to $15.4 billion in 2009. Vietnam is the second-largest source of U.S. clothing imports, and a major source for footwear, furniture, and electrical machinery. Much of this rapid growth in bilateral trade can be attributed to U.S. extension of normal trade relations (NTR) status to Vietnam. Another major contributing factor is over 20 years of rapid economic growth in Vietnam, ushered in by a 1986 shift to a more market-oriented economic system. [...] The growth in bilateral trade has not been without its accompanying issues and problems. Vietnam has applied for acceptance into the U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program and is participating in negotiations of a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) with the United States. Both the Bush and the Obama Administrations have shown some hesitance in accepting Vietnam as a GSP beneficiary country and in concluding a BIT with Vietnam. Vietnam would like to have the United States officially recognize it as a market economy. [...] The 111th Congress may play an important role in one or more of these issues, as have past Congresses. The GSP program is scheduled to expire on December 31, 2010, and if Congress should take up GSP renewal, it may also consider Vietnam's pending application. The 111th Congress may also weigh in on clothing and fish imports from Vietnam, or its designation as a market or non-market economy. Finally, if current growth trends continue, Congress may be asked to act on the rising amount of footwear, furniture, and/or electrical machinery being imported from Vietnam. This report will be updated as circumstances require."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Martin, Michael F.

  2010-05-03
• U.S.-Centric Chronology of the International Climate Change Negotiations [March 30, 2010]

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  "As background to the ongoing negotiations, this document provides a U.S.-centric chronology of the international policy deliberations to address climate change from 1979-2009. It begins before agreement on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, and proceeds through the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the Marrakesh Accords of 2001, the Bali Action Plan of 2007, and the Copenhagen conference in 2009. The Bali Action Plan mandated the Copenhagen negotiations on commitments for the period beyond 2012, when the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ends. This chronology identifies selected external events and major multilateral meetings that have influenced the current legal and institutional arrangements, as well as contentious issues for further cooperation. [...] Many in the U.S. Congress are concerned with the goals and obligations that a treaty or other form of agreement might embody. A particular concern regards parity of actions and trade competitiveness effects among countries. For U.S. legislators, additional issues include the compatibility of any international agreement with U.S. domestic policies and laws; the adequacy of appropriations, fiscal measures, and programs to achieve any commitments under the agreement; and the desirable form of the agreement and related requirements, with a view toward potential Senate ratification of the agreement and federal legislation to assure that U.S. commitments are met."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Leggett, Jane A.

  2010-03-30
• Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated August 1, 2008]

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  This CRS report focuses on Venezuela's political conditions and the U.S. policy response. "The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been friction with the Chávez government. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about human rights, Venezuela's military arms purchases, its relations with Cuba and Iran, and its efforts to export its brand of populism to other Latin American countries. Declining cooperation on anti-drug and anti-terrorism efforts has also been a U.S. concern. Since 2005, President Bush has annually designated Venezuela as a country that has failed demonstrably to adhere to its obligations under international narcotics agreements, and since 2006, the Department of State has prohibited the sale of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2008-08-01
• United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues [Updated August 1, 2008]

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  "This report, which will be updated, tracks the process by which Congress provides the funding for U.S. assessed contributions to the regular budgets of the United Nations, its agencies, and U.N. peacekeeping operation accounts, as well for U.S. voluntary contributions to U.N. system programs and funds. It includes information on the President's request and the congressional response, as well as congressional initiatives during this legislative process. Basic information is provided to help the reader understand this process."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Browne, Marjorie Ann; Nakamura, Kennon H.

  2008-08-01
• U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [Updated August 5, 2008]

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  This CRS report provides updated information on the strategic nuclear force of the United States. More specifically, this report "reviews the ongoing programs that will affect the expected size and shape of the U.S. strategic nuclear force structure. It begins with an overview of this force structure during the Cold War, and summarizes the reductions and changes that have occurred since 1991. It then offers details about each category of delivery vehicle -- land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) and heavy bombers -- focusing on their current deployments and ongoing and planned modernization programs. The report concludes with a discussion of issues related to decisions about the future size and shape of the U.S. strategic nuclear force. [...] At the present time, the U.S. land-based ballistic missile force (ICBMs) consists of 450 Minuteman III ICBMs, each deployed with between one and three warheads, for a total of 1,200 warheads.[...] The U.S. ballistic missile submarine fleet currently consists of 14 Trident submarines; each carries 24 Trident II (D-5) missiles. [...] The U.S. fleet of heavy bombers currently includes 20 B-2 bombers and 94 B-52 bombers. [...] Congress has reviewed the Bush Administration's plans for U.S. strategic nuclear forces during the annual authorization and appropriations process. It has reviewed a number of questions about the future size of that force. For example, some have questioned why the United States must retain 2,200 strategic nuclear warheads. Congress may also question the Administration's plans for reductions in the Minuteman force and B-52 fleet. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2008-08-05
• U.S.-China Counterterrorism Cooperation: Issues for U.S. Policy [Updated August 6, 2008]

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  This CRS report analyzes the cooperation between the United States and China on the issue of counterterrorism. "After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the United States faced a challenge in enlisting the full support of the People's Republic of China [PRC] in counterterrorism. This effort raised short-term policy issues about how to elicit cooperation and how to address China's concerns about military action [Operation Enduring Freedom]. Longer-term issues have concerned whether counterterrorism has strategically transformed bilateral relations and whether China's support has been valuable and not obtained at the expense of other U.S. interests." The report also examines the Congressional oversight and policy options used in order to maintain this cooperation in counterterrorism. "Congress has oversight over the closer ties with China as well as a range of policy options. U.S. policy has addressed law-enforcement; oppressed Uighur [Uyghur] groups that China claims to be 'terrorist organizations'; detained Uighurs at Guantanamo Bay prison; weapons nonproliferation; port security; security for the Olympics in Beijing in August 2008, including oversight of sanctions that ban exports of security equipment; military-to-military contacts; China's influence in Central Asia through the SCO; and China's arms transfers to Iran."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2008-08-06
• U.S.-Russian Civilian Nuclear Cooperation Agreement: Issues for Congress [Updated July 30, 2008]

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  This updated CRS report provides an overview of the civilian nuclear cooperation agreement which was formed between the United States and Russia. More specifically, this report "discusses key policy issues related to that agreement, including future nuclear energy cooperation with Russia, U.S.-Russian bilateral relations, nonproliferation cooperation and Russia's policies toward Iran. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service; Tearfund

  Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

  2008-07-30
• U.S. Forces in Afghanistan [Updated July 15, 2008]

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  "As interest in troop level deployments continues, there remains an increase of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007 speech, the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground. Since the President's announcement, there were higher troop deployment levels reported in Afghanistan in 2007 and 2008. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of June 1, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 48,250 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 37,700 active component and 10,550 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO-led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS Report RL30588, Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress, by Andrew Feickert."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Waterhouse, Michael; O'Bryant, JoAnne

  2008-07-15
• U.S. Fossil Fuel Resources: Terminology, Reporting, and Summary [November 30, 2010]

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  "Discussions of U.S. and global energy supply refer to oil, natural gas, and coal using several terms that may be unfamiliar to some. The terms used to describe different types of fossil fuels have technically precise definitions, and misunderstanding or misuse of these terms may lead to errors and confusion in estimating energy available or making comparisons among fuels, regions, or nations. Fossil fuels are categorized, classified, and named using a number of variables. Naturally occurring deposits of any material, whether it is fossil fuels, gold, or timber, comprise a broad spectrum of concentration, quality, and accessibility (geologic, technical, and cultural). Terminology is adopted to reflect those characteristics. For oil and natural gas, a major distinction in measuring quantities of energy commodities is made between proved reserves and undiscovered resources. Proved reserves are those amounts of oil, natural gas, or coal that have been discovered and defined, typically by drilling wells or other exploratory measures, and which can be economically recovered. In the United States, proved reserves are typically measured by private companies, who report their findings to the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are considered capital assets. In addition to the volumes of proved reserves are deposits of oil and gas that have not yet been discovered, which are called undiscovered resources. The term has a specific meaning: undiscovered resources are amounts of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. If they are considered to be recoverable using existing production technologies, they are referred to as undiscovered technically recoverable resources (UTRR). In-place resources are intended to represent all of the oil, natural gas, or coal contained in a formation or basin without regard to technical or economic recoverability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Whitney, Gene; Glover, Carol F.; Behrens, Carl E.

  2010-11-30
• Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated October 13, 2004]

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  "Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States with temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. The report of the 9/11 Commission maintained that border security was not considered a national security matter prior to September 11, and as a result the State Department's consular officers were not treated as full partners in counterterrorism efforts. The 9/11 Commission has made several recommendations that underscore the urgency of implementing legislative provisions on visa policy and immigration control that Congress enacted several years ago. Bills implementing the 9/11 Commission recommendations (S. 2845, H.R. 10, S. 2774/H.R. 5040, and H.R. 5024) have various provisions that would affect visa issuances. House-passed H.R. 10 would further broaden the security and terrorism grounds of inadmissibility to exclude aliens who have participated in the commission of acts of torture or extrajudicial killings abroad or who are members of political, social or other groups that endorse or espouse terrorist activity. House-passed H.R. 10 also would deploy technologies (e.g., biometrics) to detect potential terrorist indicators on travel documents; establish an Office of Visa and Passport Security; and train consular officers in the detection of terrorist travel patterns."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2004-10-13
• Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated August 4, 2004]

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  "Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States with temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. The report of the 9/11 Commission maintained that border security was not considered a national security matter prior to September 11, and as a result the State Department's consular officers were not treated as full partners in counterterrorism efforts. The 9/11 Commission has made several recommendations that underscore the urgency of implementing legislative provisions on visa policy and immigration control that Congress enacted several years ago. The 107th Congress expanded the definition of terrorism and the designation of terrorist organizations used to determine the inadmissibility and removal of aliens in the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56). […]. The Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296) transferred to the Directorate of Border and Transportation Security in the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) the authority to issue regulations regarding visa issuances and assigns staff to consular posts abroad. Although the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS's Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2004-08-04
• Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated August 4, 2003]

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  "Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) -- each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOS Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS' Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-08-04
• U.S.-Australia Civilian Nuclear Cooperation: Issues for Congress [December 1, 2010]

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  "Australia and the United States have cooperated in the peaceful use of nuclear energy since the mid-1950s. The framework for this cooperation is a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement as required by section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act. President Obama transmitted the proposed text of the latest renewal agreement to Congress on May 5, 2010, along with the required Nuclear Proliferation Assessment Statement (NPAS) and his determination that the agreement promotes U.S. national security. Congress has 30 days of continuous session for consultations with the Administration, followed by an additional 60 days of continuous session to review the agreement. If not opposed by a joint resolution of disapproval or other legislation, then the agreement will be considered approved at the end of this time period. Congress also has the option of adopting either a joint resolution of approval with (or without) conditions or standalone legislation that could approve or disapprove the agreement. On November 30, 2010, the House passed H.R. 6411 by voice vote. The bill would approve the agreement even if the required congressional review period is not reached. The Senate has not yet acted on its version of the bill (S. 3844). The United States and Australia first concluded a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement in 1957. That agreement was updated in 1979. Australia sells around 36% of its $1 billion in uranium exports to the United States. The United States is also a major processor of Australian uranium sold to other countries. Australia does not currently possess any nuclear power plants, but it operates one research reactor."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2010-12-01
• Water Infrastructure Projects Designated in EPA Appropriations: Trends and Policy Implications [October 28, 2010]

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  "Congressional action to designate funds within appropriations legislation for specified projects or locations has been increasing in recent years as a way to help communities meet needs to build and upgrade water infrastructure systems, whose estimated future funding needs exceed $630 billion. Such legislative action has often been popularly referred to as earmarking. This report discusses appropriations for water infrastructure programs of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), focusing on such designations in the account that funds these programs. Information on the programmatic history of EPA involvement in assisting wastewater treatment and drinking water projects is provided in two appendixes. Congressional appropriators began the practice of supplementing appropriations for the primary Clean Water Act (CWA) and Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) assistance programs with grants for individually designated projects in FY1989. These designated project grants are often referred to as earmarks or as STAG grants. Since 1989, of the $56.8 billion appropriated to EPA for water infrastructure assistance, more than 13% ($7.4 billion) has gone to designated project grants. Notably since FY2000, appropriators have awarded such grants to a larger total number of projects, resulting in more communities receiving such assistance, but at the same time receiving smaller amounts of funds, on average."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia

  2010-10-28
• Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated May 16, 2003]

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  "Since the September 11 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) -- each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOS Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS' Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2003-05-16