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U.S. Initiatives to Promote Global Internet Freedom: Issues, Policy, and Technology [April 5, 2010]

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"Modern means of communications, led by the Internet, provide a relatively inexpensive, open, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, pictures, and text around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on specified news events, the Internet has become an alternative source of media, and sometimes a means to organize politically. [...] Legislation now under consideration in the 111th Congress would mandate that U.S. companies selling Internet technologies and services to repressive countries take actions to combat censorship and protect personally identifiable information. Some believe, however, that technology can offer a complementary and, in some cases, better and more easily implemented solution to some of those issues. They argue that hardware and Internet services, in and of themselves, are neutral elements of the Internet; it is how they are implemented by various countries that is repressive. Also, Internet services are often tailored for deployment to specific countries; however, such tailoring is done to bring the company in line with the laws of that country, not with the intention of allowing the country to repress and censor its citizenry. In many cases, that tailoring would not raise many questions about free speech and political repression. This report provides information regarding the role of U.S. and other foreign companies in facilitating Internet censorship by repressive regimes overseas. The report is divided into several sections: Examination of repressive policies in China and Iran; Relevant U.S. laws; U.S. policies to promote Internet freedom; Private sector initiatives; and Congressional action. Two appendixes describe technologies and mechanisms for censorship and circumvention of government restrictions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Addis, Casey L.

2010-04-05
U.S. Initiatives to Promote Global Internet Freedom: Issues, Policy, and Technology [March 17, 2010]

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"Modern means of communications, led by the Internet, provide a relatively inexpensive, open, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, pictures, and text around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on specified news events, the Internet has become an alternative source of media, and sometimes a means to organize politically. [...] Legislation now under consideration in the 111th Congress would mandate that U.S. companies selling Internet technologies and services to repressive countries take actions to combat censorship and protect personally identifiable information. Some believe, however, that technology can offer a complementary and, in some cases, better and more easily implemented solution to some of those issues. They argue that hardware and Internet services, in and of themselves, are neutral elements of the Internet; it is how they are implemented by various countries that is repressive. Also, Internet services are often tailored for deployment to specific countries; however, such tailoring is done to bring the company in line with the laws of that country, not with the intention of allowing the country to repress and censor its citizenry. In many cases, that tailoring would not raise many questions about free speech and political repression. This report provides information regarding the role of U.S. and other foreign companies in facilitating Internet censorship by repressive regimes overseas. The report is divided into several sections: Examination of repressive policies in China and Iraq; Relevant U.S. laws; U.S. policies to promote Internet freedom; Private sector initiatives, and Congressional action. Two appendixes describe technologies and mechanisms for censorship and circumvention of government restrictions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Addis, Casey L.

2010-03-17
U.S.-Vietnam Economic and Trade Relations: Issues for the 111th Congress [May 3, 2010]

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"After more than two decades of virtually no economic contact, the United States and Vietnam reestablished trade relations during the 1990s. Since then, Vietnam has rapidly risen to become a significant trading partner for the United States. Bilateral trade has risen from about $220 million in 1994 to $15.4 billion in 2009. Vietnam is the second-largest source of U.S. clothing imports, and a major source for footwear, furniture, and electrical machinery. Much of this rapid growth in bilateral trade can be attributed to U.S. extension of normal trade relations (NTR) status to Vietnam. Another major contributing factor is over 20 years of rapid economic growth in Vietnam, ushered in by a 1986 shift to a more market-oriented economic system. [...] The growth in bilateral trade has not been without its accompanying issues and problems. Vietnam has applied for acceptance into the U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program and is participating in negotiations of a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) with the United States. Both the Bush and the Obama Administrations have shown some hesitance in accepting Vietnam as a GSP beneficiary country and in concluding a BIT with Vietnam. Vietnam would like to have the United States officially recognize it as a market economy. [...] The 111th Congress may play an important role in one or more of these issues, as have past Congresses. The GSP program is scheduled to expire on December 31, 2010, and if Congress should take up GSP renewal, it may also consider Vietnam's pending application. The 111th Congress may also weigh in on clothing and fish imports from Vietnam, or its designation as a market or non-market economy. Finally, if current growth trends continue, Congress may be asked to act on the rising amount of footwear, furniture, and/or electrical machinery being imported from Vietnam. This report will be updated as circumstances require."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Martin, Michael F.

2010-05-03
U.S.-Centric Chronology of the International Climate Change Negotiations [March 30, 2010]

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"As background to the ongoing negotiations, this document provides a U.S.-centric chronology of the international policy deliberations to address climate change from 1979-2009. It begins before agreement on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, and proceeds through the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the Marrakesh Accords of 2001, the Bali Action Plan of 2007, and the Copenhagen conference in 2009. The Bali Action Plan mandated the Copenhagen negotiations on commitments for the period beyond 2012, when the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ends. This chronology identifies selected external events and major multilateral meetings that have influenced the current legal and institutional arrangements, as well as contentious issues for further cooperation. [...] Many in the U.S. Congress are concerned with the goals and obligations that a treaty or other form of agreement might embody. A particular concern regards parity of actions and trade competitiveness effects among countries. For U.S. legislators, additional issues include the compatibility of any international agreement with U.S. domestic policies and laws; the adequacy of appropriations, fiscal measures, and programs to achieve any commitments under the agreement; and the desirable form of the agreement and related requirements, with a view toward potential Senate ratification of the agreement and federal legislation to assure that U.S. commitments are met."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Leggett, Jane A.

2010-03-30
Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated August 1, 2008]

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This CRS report focuses on Venezuela's political conditions and the U.S. policy response. "The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been friction with the Chávez government. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about human rights, Venezuela's military arms purchases, its relations with Cuba and Iran, and its efforts to export its brand of populism to other Latin American countries. Declining cooperation on anti-drug and anti-terrorism efforts has also been a U.S. concern. Since 2005, President Bush has annually designated Venezuela as a country that has failed demonstrably to adhere to its obligations under international narcotics agreements, and since 2006, the Department of State has prohibited the sale of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.

2008-08-01
United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues [Updated August 1, 2008]

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"This report, which will be updated, tracks the process by which Congress provides the funding for U.S. assessed contributions to the regular budgets of the United Nations, its agencies, and U.N. peacekeeping operation accounts, as well for U.S. voluntary contributions to U.N. system programs and funds. It includes information on the President's request and the congressional response, as well as congressional initiatives during this legislative process. Basic information is provided to help the reader understand this process."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Browne, Marjorie Ann; Nakamura, Kennon H.

2008-08-01
U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [Updated August 5, 2008]

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This CRS report provides updated information on the strategic nuclear force of the United States. More specifically, this report "reviews the ongoing programs that will affect the expected size and shape of the U.S. strategic nuclear force structure. It begins with an overview of this force structure during the Cold War, and summarizes the reductions and changes that have occurred since 1991. It then offers details about each category of delivery vehicle -- land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) and heavy bombers -- focusing on their current deployments and ongoing and planned modernization programs. The report concludes with a discussion of issues related to decisions about the future size and shape of the U.S. strategic nuclear force. [...] At the present time, the U.S. land-based ballistic missile force (ICBMs) consists of 450 Minuteman III ICBMs, each deployed with between one and three warheads, for a total of 1,200 warheads.[...] The U.S. ballistic missile submarine fleet currently consists of 14 Trident submarines; each carries 24 Trident II (D-5) missiles. [...] The U.S. fleet of heavy bombers currently includes 20 B-2 bombers and 94 B-52 bombers. [...] Congress has reviewed the Bush Administration's plans for U.S. strategic nuclear forces during the annual authorization and appropriations process. It has reviewed a number of questions about the future size of that force. For example, some have questioned why the United States must retain 2,200 strategic nuclear warheads. Congress may also question the Administration's plans for reductions in the Minuteman force and B-52 fleet. This report will be updated as needed."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woolf, Amy F.

2008-08-05
U.S.-China Counterterrorism Cooperation: Issues for U.S. Policy [Updated August 6, 2008]

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This CRS report analyzes the cooperation between the United States and China on the issue of counterterrorism. "After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the United States faced a challenge in enlisting the full support of the People's Republic of China [PRC] in counterterrorism. This effort raised short-term policy issues about how to elicit cooperation and how to address China's concerns about military action [Operation Enduring Freedom]. Longer-term issues have concerned whether counterterrorism has strategically transformed bilateral relations and whether China's support has been valuable and not obtained at the expense of other U.S. interests." The report also examines the Congressional oversight and policy options used in order to maintain this cooperation in counterterrorism. "Congress has oversight over the closer ties with China as well as a range of policy options. U.S. policy has addressed law-enforcement; oppressed Uighur [Uyghur] groups that China claims to be 'terrorist organizations'; detained Uighurs at Guantanamo Bay prison; weapons nonproliferation; port security; security for the Olympics in Beijing in August 2008, including oversight of sanctions that ban exports of security equipment; military-to-military contacts; China's influence in Central Asia through the SCO; and China's arms transfers to Iran."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kan, Shirley

2008-08-06
U.S.-Russian Civilian Nuclear Cooperation Agreement: Issues for Congress [Updated July 30, 2008]

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This updated CRS report provides an overview of the civilian nuclear cooperation agreement which was formed between the United States and Russia. More specifically, this report "discusses key policy issues related to that agreement, including future nuclear energy cooperation with Russia, U.S.-Russian bilateral relations, nonproliferation cooperation and Russia's policies toward Iran. This report will be updated."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service; Tearfund

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2008-07-30
U.S. Forces in Afghanistan [Updated July 15, 2008]

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"As interest in troop level deployments continues, there remains an increase of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007 speech, the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground. Since the President's announcement, there were higher troop deployment levels reported in Afghanistan in 2007 and 2008. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of June 1, 2008, according to DOD, the United States had 48,250 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 37,700 active component and 10,550 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO-led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS Report RL30588, Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress, by Andrew Feickert."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Waterhouse, Michael; O'Bryant, JoAnne

2008-07-15
U.S. Fossil Fuel Resources: Terminology, Reporting, and Summary [November 30, 2010]

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"Discussions of U.S. and global energy supply refer to oil, natural gas, and coal using several terms that may be unfamiliar to some. The terms used to describe different types of fossil fuels have technically precise definitions, and misunderstanding or misuse of these terms may lead to errors and confusion in estimating energy available or making comparisons among fuels, regions, or nations. Fossil fuels are categorized, classified, and named using a number of variables. Naturally occurring deposits of any material, whether it is fossil fuels, gold, or timber, comprise a broad spectrum of concentration, quality, and accessibility (geologic, technical, and cultural). Terminology is adopted to reflect those characteristics. For oil and natural gas, a major distinction in measuring quantities of energy commodities is made between proved reserves and undiscovered resources. Proved reserves are those amounts of oil, natural gas, or coal that have been discovered and defined, typically by drilling wells or other exploratory measures, and which can be economically recovered. In the United States, proved reserves are typically measured by private companies, who report their findings to the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are considered capital assets. In addition to the volumes of proved reserves are deposits of oil and gas that have not yet been discovered, which are called undiscovered resources. The term has a specific meaning: undiscovered resources are amounts of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. If they are considered to be recoverable using existing production technologies, they are referred to as undiscovered technically recoverable resources (UTRR). In-place resources are intended to represent all of the oil, natural gas, or coal contained in a formation or basin without regard to technical or economic recoverability."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Whitney, Gene; Glover, Carol F.; Behrens, Carl E.

2010-11-30
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated October 13, 2004]

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"Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States with temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. The report of the 9/11 Commission maintained that border security was not considered a national security matter prior to September 11, and as a result the State Department's consular officers were not treated as full partners in counterterrorism efforts. The 9/11 Commission has made several recommendations that underscore the urgency of implementing legislative provisions on visa policy and immigration control that Congress enacted several years ago. Bills implementing the 9/11 Commission recommendations (S. 2845, H.R. 10, S. 2774/H.R. 5040, and H.R. 5024) have various provisions that would affect visa issuances. House-passed H.R. 10 would further broaden the security and terrorism grounds of inadmissibility to exclude aliens who have participated in the commission of acts of torture or extrajudicial killings abroad or who are members of political, social or other groups that endorse or espouse terrorist activity. House-passed H.R. 10 also would deploy technologies (e.g., biometrics) to detect potential terrorist indicators on travel documents; establish an Office of Visa and Passport Security; and train consular officers in the detection of terrorist travel patterns."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2004-10-13
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated August 4, 2004]

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"Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States with temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. The report of the 9/11 Commission maintained that border security was not considered a national security matter prior to September 11, and as a result the State Department's consular officers were not treated as full partners in counterterrorism efforts. The 9/11 Commission has made several recommendations that underscore the urgency of implementing legislative provisions on visa policy and immigration control that Congress enacted several years ago. The 107th Congress expanded the definition of terrorism and the designation of terrorist organizations used to determine the inadmissibility and removal of aliens in the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56). […]. The Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296) transferred to the Directorate of Border and Transportation Security in the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) the authority to issue regulations regarding visa issuances and assigns staff to consular posts abroad. Although the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS's Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2004-08-04
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated August 4, 2003]

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"Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) -- each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOS Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS' Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2003-08-04
U.S.-Australia Civilian Nuclear Cooperation: Issues for Congress [December 1, 2010]

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"Australia and the United States have cooperated in the peaceful use of nuclear energy since the mid-1950s. The framework for this cooperation is a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement as required by section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act. President Obama transmitted the proposed text of the latest renewal agreement to Congress on May 5, 2010, along with the required Nuclear Proliferation Assessment Statement (NPAS) and his determination that the agreement promotes U.S. national security. Congress has 30 days of continuous session for consultations with the Administration, followed by an additional 60 days of continuous session to review the agreement. If not opposed by a joint resolution of disapproval or other legislation, then the agreement will be considered approved at the end of this time period. Congress also has the option of adopting either a joint resolution of approval with (or without) conditions or standalone legislation that could approve or disapprove the agreement. On November 30, 2010, the House passed H.R. 6411 by voice vote. The bill would approve the agreement even if the required congressional review period is not reached. The Senate has not yet acted on its version of the bill (S. 3844). The United States and Australia first concluded a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement in 1957. That agreement was updated in 1979. Australia sells around 36% of its $1 billion in uranium exports to the United States. The United States is also a major processor of Australian uranium sold to other countries. Australia does not currently possess any nuclear power plants, but it operates one research reactor."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

2010-12-01
Water Infrastructure Projects Designated in EPA Appropriations: Trends and Policy Implications [October 28, 2010]

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"Congressional action to designate funds within appropriations legislation for specified projects or locations has been increasing in recent years as a way to help communities meet needs to build and upgrade water infrastructure systems, whose estimated future funding needs exceed $630 billion. Such legislative action has often been popularly referred to as earmarking. This report discusses appropriations for water infrastructure programs of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), focusing on such designations in the account that funds these programs. Information on the programmatic history of EPA involvement in assisting wastewater treatment and drinking water projects is provided in two appendixes. Congressional appropriators began the practice of supplementing appropriations for the primary Clean Water Act (CWA) and Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) assistance programs with grants for individually designated projects in FY1989. These designated project grants are often referred to as earmarks or as STAG grants. Since 1989, of the $56.8 billion appropriated to EPA for water infrastructure assistance, more than 13% ($7.4 billion) has gone to designated project grants. Notably since FY2000, appropriators have awarded such grants to a larger total number of projects, resulting in more communities receiving such assistance, but at the same time receiving smaller amounts of funds, on average."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Copeland, Claudia

2010-10-28
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated May 16, 2003]

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"Since the September 11 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) -- each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOS Consular Affairs remains the agency responsible for issuing visas, DHS' Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHS's Bureau of Customs and Border protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2003-05-16
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated January 24, 2003]

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"Since the September 11 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States legally despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to transition to a Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments -- the Department of State (DOS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ) -- each play key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. DOS's Bureau of Consular Affairs is the agency responsible for issuing visas, and DOJ's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) plays a key role in approving immigrant petitions and in inspecting all people who enter the United States. In FY2000, DOS issued approximately 7.5 million visas and rejected over 2 million aliens seeking visas. The President's proposal for DHS, H.R. 5005 as introduced, would have bifurcated visa issuances so that DHS would set the policies, giving the DHS Secretary exclusive authority through the Secretary of State to issue or refuse to issue visas and retaining responsibility for implementation in DOS."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2003-01-24
U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues [Updated July 14, 2009]

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From the report: "Congress has reviewed the Bush Administration's plans for U.S. strategic nuclear forces during the annual authorization and appropriations process. It has reviewed a number of questions about the future size of that force. For example, some have questioned why the United States must retain 2,200 strategic nuclear warheads. Congress may also question the Administration's plans for reductions in the Minuteman force and B-52 fleet. This report will be updated as needed."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woolf, Amy F.

2009-07-14
United States-Canada Trade and Economic Relationship: Prospects and Challenges [May 13, 2009]

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"The United States and Canada conduct the world's largest bilateral trade relationship, with total merchandise trade (exports and imports) exceeding $596.9 billion in 2008. The U.S.-Canadian relationship revolves around the themes of integration and asymmetry: integration from successive trade liberalization from the U.S.-Canada Auto Pact of 1965 leading to North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and asymmetry resulting from Canadian dependence on the U.S. market and from the disparate size of the two economies. […].The terrorist attacks of 2001 focused attention on the U.S.-Canadian border. Several bilateral initiatives have been undertaken to minimize disruption to commerce from added border security. The focus on the border has renewed interest in some quarters in greater economic integration, either through incremental measures such as greater regulatory cooperation or potentially larger goals such as a customs or monetary union. Congressional interest has focused mostly on trade disputes, and also on the ability of the two nations to continue their traditional volume of trade with heightened security on the border. This report will be updated periodically."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Fergusson, Ian F.

2009-05-13
United Arab Emirates Nuclear Program and Proposed U.S. Nuclear Cooperation [July 17, 2009]

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"This CRS report "provides background information on the UAE nuclear program, reviews developments to date, analyzes proposed nuclear cooperation with the United States, and discusses relevant legislative proposals and options." From the summary: "The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has embarked on a program to build civilian nuclear power plants and is seeking cooperation and technical assistance from the United States and others. During 2008 and early 2009, the Bush Administration and the UAE government negotiated and signed a memorandum of understanding and a proposed bilateral agreement on peaceful nuclear cooperation pursuant to Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1954. Then-U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed the proposed agreement on peaceful nuclear cooperation with the UAE on January 15, 2009. The Obama Administration has not submitted the proposed agreement to Congress for the required review period. [...]. The agreement text states the intent of both governments to cooperate in a number of areas including, but not limited to, the development of the UAE's 'civilian nuclear energy use in a manner that contributes to global efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation' and, 'the establishment of reliable sources of nuclear fuel for future civilian light water reactors deployed' in the UAE. The agreement also states that future cooperation may encompass training, scientific exchanges, and technical assistance, including in the areas of nuclear security, infrastructure protection, and nuclear fuel and waste management."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Blanchard, Christopher M.; Kerr, Paul K.

2009-07-17
United Arab Emirates Nuclear Program and Proposed U.S. Nuclear Cooperation [June 11, 2009]

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This CRS report "provides background information on the UAE nuclear program, reviews developments to date, analyzes proposed nuclear cooperation with the United States, and discusses relevant legislative proposals and options." From the summary: "The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has embarked on a program to build civilian nuclear power plants and is seeking cooperation and technical assistance from the United States and others. During 2008 and early 2009, the Bush Administration and the UAE government negotiated and signed a memorandum of understanding and a proposed bilateral agreement on peaceful nuclear cooperation pursuant to Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1954. Then-U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed the proposed agreement on peaceful nuclear cooperation with the UAE on January 15, 2009. The Obama Administration has not submitted the proposed agreement to Congress for the required review period. [...]. The agreement text states the intent of both governments to cooperate in a number of areas including, but not limited to, the development of the UAE's 'civilian nuclear energy use in a manner that contributes to global efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation' and, 'the establishment of reliable sources of nuclear fuel for future civilian light water reactors deployed' in the UAE. The agreement also states that future cooperation may encompass training, scientific exchanges, and technical assistance, including in the areas of nuclear security, infrastructure protection, and nuclear fuel and waste management."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Blanchard, Christopher M.; Kerr, Paul K.

2009-06-11
U.S. Security Assistance to Lebanon [May 20, 2009]

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"Since 2005, the United States has provided over $600 million in security assistance to the government of Lebanon to increase the capacity of its various security forces to combat terrorism and secure Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling to Hezbollah and other armed groups. The recent increase in U.S. security assistance to Lebanon is an extension of a long-standing commitment on the part of the United States to foster a friendly and independent Lebanese government. The Lebanese civil war (1975-1990) was punctuated by targeted bombings against U.S. and Western interests and kidnappings of U.S. and Western civilians in Lebanon. At times, the violence threatened to spill over into adjacent areas of the Middle East, demonstrating the dangers to U.S. interests posed by instability in this small country. A war between Israel and Hezbollah in mid-2006, subsequent clashes between radical Palestinian militia and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), and ongoing sectarian conflict complicate U.S. support for Lebanon. In a broader sense, ongoing conflict not only jeopardizes the long-term stability of Lebanon, but also presents the United States with a number of pressing policy questions, including how to manage a long-standing commitment to Lebanon with other regional challenges. Many observers believe that U.S. policy toward Lebanon has succeeded diplomatically in bringing France, Saudi Arabia, and other Sunni Arabs together in order to thwart Iranian and Syrian influence through their proxy, Hezbollah. Critics, however, charge that U.S. policy has inflamed sectarian tensions and strengthened the resolve of Iran and Syria to maintain their influence in Lebanon."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Addis, Casey L.

2009-05-20
U.S.-Iraq Withdrawal/Status of Forces Agreement: Issues for Congressional Oversight [Updated July 13, 2009]

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"Congress has several tools by which to exercise oversight regarding negotiation, form, conclusion, and implementation of agreements by the United States. The agreements with Iraq were negotiated and concluded as executive agreements and entered into force on January 1, 2009, and yet there remain many unanswered questions about the specific terms within the SOFA. This report begins by discussing the historical legal framework governing U.S. military operations in Iraq. The report then provides a general background as to the content of agreements traditionally considered Status of Forces Agreements (SOFAs). Finally, the report discusses specific aspects of the SOFA, highlighting issues that may require continued congressional oversight."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mason, R. Chuck

2009-07-13
Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated January 19, 2005]

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"This report opens with an overview of visa issuances, with sections on procedures for aliens coming to live in the United States permanently and on. For a broader discussion, see CRS Report RS20916, Immigration and Naturalization Fundamentals, by Ruth Ellen Wasem. For background and analysis of visa issuance policy and activities, see CRS Report RL31512, Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation, by Ruth Ellen Wasem. For background and further discussion of humanitarian cases, see CRS Report RL31269, Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy, by Andorra Bruno; and CRS Report RS20844, Temporary Protected Status: Current Immigration Policy and Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem and Karma Ester. USCIS forms are available at [http://uscis.gov/graphics/formsfee/index.htm]. Procedures for aliens admitted for temporary stays. It includes a discussion of visa screening policies, including inadmissibility, databases, an analysis of visa refusals, biometric visas and other major visa policy procedures. Summaries of key laws revising visa policy enacted in the 107th Congress follows. The final section analyzes selected issues in the 108th Congress, notably the 9/11 Commission recommendations, visa revocation and removal, new technologies, potential impact on business, and other security concerns."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2005-01-19
Visa Waiver Program [Updated December 20, 2004]

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"Since the events of September 11, 2001, concerns have been raised about the ability of terrorists to enter the United States under the visa waiver program. The visa waiver program (VWP) allows nationals from certain countries to enter the United States as temporary visitors (nonimmigrants) for business or pleasure without first obtaining a visa from a U.S. consulate abroad. Temporary visitors for business or pleasure from non-VWP countries must obtain a visa from Department of State (DOS) officers at a consular post abroad before coming to the United States. The VWP constitutes one of a few exceptions under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) in which foreign nationals are admitted into the United States without a valid visa. Under Department of Homeland Security (DHS) regulations, travelers who seek to enter the United States through the VWP became subject to the biometric requirements of the US-VISIT program on September 30, 2004."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Siskin, Alison

2004-12-20
Water Infrastructure Needs and Investment: Review and Analysis of Key Issues [Updated May 5, 2005]

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"A number of interest groups and coalitions have issued reports on infrastructure funding needs and related policy issues, as have EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] and the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). They present a range of estimates and scenarios of future investment costs and gaps between current spending and future costs. EPA and CBO, in particular, caution that projections of future costs are highly uncertain, and that funding gaps are not inevitable. […]. Congressional interest in these issues has grown for some time and continues in the 109th Congress, partly in response to urgings of stakeholder groups. In both the 107th and 108th Congresses, House and Senate committees acted on comprehensive legislation to reauthorize and modify infrastructure financing programs in the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act, but no bills were enacted. The Bush Administration has addressed water infrastructure in a number of general ways, but has not offered legislative proposals of its own. EPA's principal initiative has been to support strategies intended to ensure that infrastructure investment needs are met in an efficient, timely, and equitable manner. This report identifies a number of issues that have received attention in connection with water infrastructure investment. It begins with a review of federal involvement, describes the debate about needs, and then examines key issues, including what is the nature of the problems to be solved; who will pay, and what is the federal role; and questions about mechanisms for delivering federal support, including state-by-state allotment of federal funds."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Tiemann, Mary; Copeland, Claudia

2005-05-05
Water Quality Issues in the 111th Congress: Oversight and Implementation [July 13, 2010]

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"Although much progress has been made in achieving the ambitious goals that Congress established more than 35 years ago in the Clean Water Act (CWA) to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters, long-standing problems persist, and new problems have emerged. Water quality problems are diverse, ranging from pollution runoff from farms and ranches, city streets, and other diffuse or 'nonpoint' sources, to toxic substances discharged from factories and sewage treatment plants. There is little agreement among stakeholders about what solutions are needed and whether new legislation is required to address the nation's remaining water pollution problems. For some time, efforts to comprehensively amend the CWA have stalled as interests have debated whether and exactly how to change the law. Congress has instead focused legislative attention on enacting narrow bills to extend or modify selected CWA programs, but not any comprehensive proposals."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Copeland, Claudia

2010-07-13
U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts [November 19, 2010]

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"The U.S. trade deficit had been decreasing through May 2009 because of the global financial crisis but since then has begun to increase again. The financial crisis caused U.S. imports to drop faster than U.S. exports. The global simultaneous recession, however, implies that exporting countries cannot rely on increased foreign demand to make up for slack demand at home. Even though U.S. imports have been down considerably from the first half of 2008, companies competing with imports still face diminishing demand as the domestic economy has been slow to recover from the recession. These conditions imply that the political forces to protect domestic industry from imports are likely to intensify both in the United States and abroad. In 2009, the trade deficit in goods reached $506.9 billion on a balance of payments (BoP) basis, less than the $834.7 in 2008 and $823.2 billion in 2007. The 2009 deficit on merchandise trade with China was $227 billion (Census basis), with the European Union was $61.1 billion, with Canada was $21.6 billion, with Japan was $44.7 billion, with Mexico was $47.8 billion, and with the Asian Newly Industrialized Countries (Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan) moved from a deficit of $5.5 billion in 2007 to a surplus of $2.2 billion in 2008 and a surplus again in 2009 of $3.5 billion. Imports of goods of $1,575.4 billion decreased by $564.1 billion, 26.4% over 2008. Exports of goods of $1,068.5 billion fell by $236.4 billion, 18.1%. The overall merchandise trade deficit for 2009 improved, or decreased in size, by $327.7 billion, or roughly 39%."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Donnelly, J. Michael; Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki

2010-11-19
U.S.-South Korea Relations [December 8, 2010]

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"Since late 2008, relations between the United States and South Korea (known officially as the Republic of Korea, or ROK) have been arguably at their best state in decades. By the middle of 2010, in the view of many in the Obama Administration, South Korea had emerged as the United States' closest ally in East Asia. Of all the issues on the bilateral agenda, Congress has the most direct role to play in the proposed Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA). Congressional approval is necessary for the agreement to go into effect. In early December 2010, the two sides announced they had agreed on modifications to the original agreement, which was signed in 2007. South Korea accepted a range of U.S. demands designed to help the U.S. auto industry and received some concessions in return. In the United States, the supplementary deal appears to have changed the minds of many groups and members of Congress who previously had opposed the FTA, which is now expected to be presented to the 112th Congress in 2011. If Congress approves the agreement, it would be the United States' second largest FTA, after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). U.S.-South Korean coordination over policy towards North Korea has been particularly close. The Obama and Lee Administrations have adopted a medium-to-longer-term policy of 'strategic patience' that involves three main elements: refusing to return to the Six-Party Talks without an assurance from North Korea that it would take 'irreversible steps' to denuclearize; gradually attempting to alter China's strategic assessment of North Korea; and using Pyongyang's provocations as opportunities to tighten sanctions against North Korean entities."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Taylor, Mi Ae; Manyin, Mark E.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

2010-12-08

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