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Generalized System of Preferences (GSP): Overview and Issues for Congress [Updated October 28, 2019]
From the Summary: "The U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program provides nonreciprocal, duty-free tariff treatment to certain products imported from designated beneficiary developing countries (BDCs). [...] Currently, 120 developing countries and territories are GSP beneficiary developing countries (BDCs). The program provides duty-free entry into the United States for over 3,500 products (based on 8-digit U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule tariff lines) from BDCs, and duty-free status to an additional 1,500 products from 44 GSP beneficiaries additionally designated as least-developed beneficiary developing countries (LDBDCs). In 2018, products valued at about $23.8 billion (imports for consumption) entered the United States duty-free under the program, out of $238.4 billion worth of total imports from GSP-eligible countries. Total U.S. imports from all countries amounted to about $2.6 trillion in 2018. [...] This report examines, first, recent legislative developments, along with a brief history, economic rationale, and legal background leading to the establishment of the GSP. Second, the report describes U.S. GSP implementation. Third, the report briefly analyzes the U.S. program's effectiveness and stakeholders' views, and discusses possible options for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jones, Vivian Catherine
2019-10-28
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Incidence and Magnitude of the Health Costs of In-Person Schooling During the COVID-19 Pandemic
From the Abstract: "The health costs of in-person schooling during the pandemic, if any, fall primarily on the families of students, largely due to the fact that students significantly outnumber teachers. Data from North Carolina, Wisconsin, Australia, England, and Israel covering almost 80 million person-days in school help assess the magnitude of the fatality risks of in-person schooling (with mitigation protocols), accounting for the age and living arrangements of students and teachers. The risks of in-person schooling to teachers are comparable to the risks of commuting by automobile. Valued at a VSL [value of a statistical life] of $10 million, the average daily fatality cost ranges from $0.01 for an unvaccinated young teacher living alone to as much as $29 for an elderly and unvaccinated teacher living with an elderly and unvaccinated spouse. COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] risk avoidance may also be more amenable to Bayesian updating and selective protection than automobile fatalities are. The results suggest that economic behaviors can sometimes invert epidemiological patterns when it comes to the spread of infectious diseases in human populations."
Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics
Mulligan, Casey B.
2021-03
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Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report as of February 28, 2021 (Fiscal Year 2021 Report to Congress)
From the Background: "P.L. 116-260 requires that the FEMA Administrator provide a report by the fifth business day of each month on the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) that includes a funding summary, a table delineating DRF funding activities each month by state and event, a summary of the funding for the catastrophic events, and the fund exhaustion date, or end-of-fiscal-year balance. P.L. 116-136 requires that both projected and actual costs for funds provided by it for major disasters and any other expenses be provided to the House and Senate Appropriations Committees."
United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency
2021-03-11
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Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report as of December 31, 2020 (Fiscal Year 2021 Report to Congress)
From the Background: "P.L. 116-260 requires that the FEMA Administrator provide a report by the fifth business day of each month on the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) that includes a funding summary, a table delineating DRF funding activities each month by state and event, a summary of the funding for the catastrophic events, and the fund exhaustion date, or end-of-fiscal-year balance. P.L. 116-136 requires that both projected and actual costs for funds provided by it for major disasters and any other expenses be provided to the House and Senate Appropriations Committees."
United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency
2021-01-08
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Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report as of November 30, 2020 (Fiscal Year 2021 Report to Congress)
From the Background: "P.L. 116-93 requires that the FEMA Administrator provide a report by the fifth business day of each month on the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) that includes a funding summary, a table delineating DRF funding activities each month by state and event, a summary of the funding for the catastrophic events, and the fund exhaustion date, or end-of-fiscal-year balance. P.L. 116-136 requires that both projected and actual costs for funds provided by it for major disasters and any other expenses be provided to the House and Senate Appropriations Committees."
United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency
2020-12-07
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How Companies Transformed During 2020 and the Impact on Frontline Workers [presentation]
From the About: "[1] In 2020, we received funding from Strada Education Network and Walmart.org to conduct a 12-month, 3-phase study. [2] The focus of the study is to learn how the pandemic and heightened attention on racial inequities have influenced companies' employment, education, and short- and long-term training plans for the months and years ahead." The study had 4 key questions. "[1] In today's rapidly changing business environment and economy, what are the workforce skill needs that are increasingly important? [2] In what ways are these skill needs affecting a range of employment practices, including education and training programs for frontline workers? [3] How has the current context - the pandemic and heightened attention on racial inequities - influenced businesses' workplace hiring practices as well as plans to support career advancement for frontline workers? [4] What types of employee concerns have surfaced regarding what they are facing in the workplace and at home? What are the ways that businesses are helping to support employees' needs?"
Aspen Institute. Economic Opportunities Program
2021-03
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COVID-19 Loans: SBA Has Begun to Take Steps to Improve Oversight and Fraud Risk Management, Statement of William B. Shear, Director, Financial Markets and Community Investment, Testimony Before the Committee on Small Business, House of Representatives
From the Highlights: "SBA [Small Business Administration] has made or guaranteed about 18.7 million loans and grants through PPP [Paycheck Protection Program] and the EIDL [Economic
Injury Disaster Loans] program, providing about $968 billion to help small businesses adversely affected by COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019]. PPP provides potentially forgivable loans to small businesses, and EIDL provides low-interest loans of up to $2 million for operating and other expenses, as well as advances (grants). This testimony discusses the lack of controls in PPP and the EIDL program and SBA's efforts to improve its oversight of these programs"
United States. Government Accountability Office
Shear, William B.
2021-04-20
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COVID-19: Emergency Financial Aid for College Students Under the CARES Act
From the Document: "In March 2020, many schools (colleges and other institutions of higher education) across the country closed their physical campuses in response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID19) pandemic and began exclusively providing classes online. As a result of these measures to curb the spread of COVID-19, which began during the 2020 school year and continued into the next, students incurred unexpected expenses for travel, housing, food, health care, and technology purchases to facilitate distance learning. These unplanned expenses, along with a declining economy, were particularly disruptive to the educational pursuits of students with limited resources. The CARES [Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security] Act was enacted in March 2020 and appropriated about $14 billion for the Higher Education Emergency Relief Fund (HEERF), of which about $12.6 billion was for grants to schools to prevent, prepare for, and respond to COVID-19. [...] In June 2020, GAO [Government Accountability Office] issued the first of a series of reports on key federal efforts to address the pandemic, which included a description of Education's distribution of HEERF grants to schools and Education's communication with schools about student eligibility for emergency student aid. This report builds on that work and examines (1) how HEERF emergency student aid funds were provided to schools under the CARES Act, and (2) how schools distributed emergency student aid to eligible students."
United States. Government Accountability Office
2021-04-20
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Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: H.R. 1870, Strengthening Local Transportation Security Capabilities Act of 2021
This is the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Cost Estimate as ordered reported by the House Committee on Homeland Security on March 18, 2021. From the Document: "H.R. 1870 would direct the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to prioritize the assignment of federal officers and intelligence analysts to existing fusion centers in jurisdictions where high-risk surface transportation systems are located to enhance the gathering and sharing of information about security-related threats. (Fusion centers are state-owned facilities that help coordinate the efforts of government agencies and other law enforcement entities to assess threats.) The bill also would require the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to review implementation of those information sharing activities. Lastly, H.R. 1870 would authorize DHS to develop a training program for nonfederal law enforcement agencies."
United States. Congressional Budget Office
2021-04-23
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Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: Transportation Security Administration Legislation [April 23, 2021]
"On March 18, the House Committee on Homeland Security ordered reported the following bills: [1] H.R. 1871, the Transportation Security Transparency Improvement Act, would direct the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to improve the transparency of the agency's guidelines for sensitive security information (SSI) and international aviation security directives by clearly designating SSI, reviewing and updating SSI guidelines, coordinating with aviation industry and law enforcement personnel, and briefing the Congress. [2] H.R. 1877, the Security Screening During COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] Act, would direct TSA, in consultation with the Department of Health and Human Services, to issue and begin implementing a plan to reduce the risk of coronavirus transmission at TSA checkpoints. The bill also would require the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to review that plan. [3] H.R. 1893, the Transportation Security Preparedness Act of 2021, would direct TSA to survey its workforce and report to the Congress regarding the agency's efforts to mitigate transmission of the COVID-19 virus among the workforce. [...4] H.R. 1895, the Transportation Security Public Health Threat Preparedness Act of 2021, would authorize TSA to provide personnel to other federal agencies to coordinate efforts to address public health threats to the U.S. transportation security system."
United States. Congressional Budget Office
2021-04-23
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Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: H.R. 1333, National Origin-Based Antidiscrimination for Nonimmigrants Act
This is the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Cost Estimate as ordered reported by the House Committee on the Judiciary on April 14, 2021. From the Document: "The Immigration and Nationality Act 'grants the President broad discretion to suspend the entry of aliens into the United States.' H.R. 1333 would amend that act to narrow the President's authority to impose entry or visa restrictions on aliens (non-U.S. nationals) based on their country of birth, country of nationality, and certain other characteristics. By limiting the President's authority to restrict entry into the United States, the bill could increase the number of aliens who arrive in the country and receive federal benefits. However, the current Administration has not proposed any entry or visa restrictions that would be affected by H.R. 1333; to the contrary, it has revoked several entry and visa restrictions that had been promulgated by the previous Administration. Therefore, CBO estimates that enacting H.R. 1333 would have no budgetary effects. (CBO has no basis for predicting whether a future Administration would seek to impose entry or visa restrictions in the absence of this legislation.)"
United States. Congressional Budget Office
2021-04-19
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Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: H.R. 2118, Securing America from Epidemics Act
This is the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Cost Estimate as ordered reported by the House Committee on Foreign Affairs on March 25, 2021. From the Document: "H.R. 2118 would authorize the United States to participate in the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI). CEPI's mission is to accelerate the development of vaccines to treat emerging infectious diseases and to facilitate access to those vaccines during outbreaks. In September 2020, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) signed an agreement to contribute $20 million to CEPI over a five-year period. An initial $4 million contribution was made for 2020 and a second $4 million payment is planned for 2021, both using available appropriations. CBO [Congressional Budget Office] expects that the USAID will contribute another $4 million in 2022 using available funds from the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 or other existing appropriations. On that basis, CBO estimates that implementing the bill would require additional appropriations of $4 million a year over the 2023-2024 period to fulfill the $20 million commitment."
United States. Congressional Budget Office
2021-04-23
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Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: S. 688, BOLIVAR Act
This is the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Cost Estimate as ordered reported by the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs on March 17, 2021. From the Document: "S. 688 would generally prohibit any executive agency from entering into a contract with any person that has business operations with any authority of the Venezuelan government that is not recognized as the legitimate government by the United States. That prohibition could be waived for certain contracts, such as those determined by the Secretary of State to be in the national security interests of the United States."
United States. Congressional Budget Office
2021-04-23
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Standards and Guidelines for Internal Affairs: Recommendations from a Community of Practice
From the Document: "Through a grant from the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) convened the National Internal Affairs Community of Practice group comprising the LAPD and 11 major city and county law enforcement agencies. The purpose was to share and develop standards, recommendations, and best practices in Internal Affairs work, discuss differences and similarities in practice, and look at various approaches to improving individual and collective agencies' Internal Affairs practices. This report is the result of the group's work. The project reaffirmed the vital importance of Internal Affairs as a critical internal police agency function. Internal Affairs serves two communities--law enforcement and the general public--and is essential in building and maintaining mutual trust and respect between the two."
United States. Department of Justice. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
2009-08-21?
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U.S. Foreign-Trade Zones: Background and Issues for Congress [September 5, 2012]
"U.S. foreign-trade zones (FTZs) are geographic areas declared to be outside the normal customs territory of the United States. This means that, for foreign merchandise entering FTZs and re-exported as different products, customs procedures are streamlined and tariffs do not apply. For products intended for U.S. consumption, full customs procedures are applied and duties are payable when they exit the FTZ. In 1934, in the midst of the Great Depression, Congress passed the U.S. Foreign-Trade Zones Act. It was designed to expedite and encourage international trade while promoting domestic activity and investment. The U.S. FTZ program offers a variety of customs benefits to businesses which combine foreign and domestic merchandise in FTZs. Similar types of 'zones' exist in 135 countries, employing about 66 million workers worldwide. Though some aspects differ, all have streamlined customs procedures and no duties applicable on components and raw materials combined in zones and then exported. Use of the zones can facilitate cooperative international production for a substantial share of the global supply chain. […] Current issues for Congress relating to the U.S. FTZ program may include (1) whether U.S. FTZs encourage a misallocation of U.S. resources; (2) data availability issues; (3) security concerns; and (4) the U.S. employment and global competitiveness impact of FTZs. Broader considerations relating to the world zone network include (5) the effectiveness of trade zones worldwide as a tool for economic development; and (6) trade zones worldwide and worker rights."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolle, Mary Jane; Williams, Brock R.
2012-09-05
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U.S. Offshore Oil and Gas Resources: Prospects and Processes [May 4, 2011]
"Access to potential oil and gas resources under the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) continues to be controversial. Moratoria on leasing and development in certain areas were largely eliminated in 2008 and 2009, although a few areas remain legislatively off limits to leasing. The 112th Congress may be unlikely to reinstate broad leasing moratoria, but some Members have expressed interest in protecting areas (e.g., the Georges Bank or Northern California) or establishing protective coastal buffers. Pressure to expand oil and gas supplies and protect coastal environments and communities will likely lead Congress and the Administration to consider carefully which areas to keep open to leasing and which to protect from development. [...] The oil spill that occurred on April 20, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico brought increased attention to offshore drilling risks. Consideration of offshore development for any purpose has raised concerns over the protection of the marine and coastal environment. In addition to the oil spill, historical events associated with offshore oil production, such as the large oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara, CA, in 1969, cause both opponents and proponents of offshore development to consider the risks and to weigh those risks against the economic and social benefits of the development."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphries, Marc; Pirog, Robert L.; Whitney, Gene
2011-05-04
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U.S. Disposal of Chemical Weapons in the Ocean: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated October 23, 2006]
"The U.S. Armed Forces disposed of chemical weapons in the ocean from World
War I through 1970. At that time, it was thought that the vastness of ocean waters would absorb chemical agents that may leak from these weapons. However, public concerns about human health and environmental risks, and the economic effects of potential damage to marine resources, led to a statutory prohibition on the disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean in 1972. For many years, there was little attention to weapons that had been dumped offshore prior to this prohibition. However, the U.S. Army completed a report in 2001 indicating that the past disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean had been more common and widespread geographically than previously acknowledged. The Army cataloged 74 instances of disposal through 1970, including 32 instances off U.S. shores and 42 instances off foreign shores. The disclosure of these records has renewed public concern about lingering risks from chemical weapons still in the ocean today. In the event that the weapons are located, retrieving them from the seabed could be technically challenging and could introduce new risks during retrieval and transport for onshore disposal. Leaving located weapons in place, and warning the public to avoid these areas, may be more feasible and involve fewer immediate risks. However, long-term risks would remain. Responding to potential risks is further complicated by insufficient information to reliably estimate response costs and by the uncertain availability of federal funding to pay for such actions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.
2006-10-23
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U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspectives [January 5, 2012]
"The health of the U.S. manufacturing sector has long been of great concern to Congress. The decline in manufacturing employment since the start of the 21st century has stimulated particular congressional interest. Members have introduced hundreds of bills intended to support domestic manufacturing activity in various ways. The proponents of such measures frequently contend that the United States is by various measures falling behind other countries in manufacturing, and they argue that this relative decline can be mitigated or reversed by government policy. This report is designed to inform the debate over the health of U.S. manufacturing through a series of charts and tables that depict the position of the United States relative to other countries according to various metrics. Understanding which trends in manufacturing reflect factors that may be unique to the United States and which are related to broader changes in technology or consumer preferences may be helpful in formulating policies intended to aid firms or workers engaged in manufacturing activity. This report does not describe or discuss specific policy options."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levinson, Marc
2012-01-05
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U.S. National Science Foundation: Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) [June 17, 2011]
"The Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) of the National Science Foundation (NSF) was authorized by Congress in 1978, partly in response to concerns in Congress and the concerns of some in academia and the scientific community about the geographic distribution of federal research and development (R&D) funds. It was argued that there was a concentration of federal R&D funds in large and wealthy states and universities, and that the continuation of such funding patterns might ensure a dichotomy between the 'haves' and 'have-nots.' EPSCoR began in 1979 with five states and funding of approximately $1.0 million. Currently, EPSCoR operates in 29 jurisdictions, including 27 states and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. To date, the NSF has invested approximately $920.0 million in EPSCoR programs and activities. When established, it operated solely in the NSF. EPSCoR was expanded in the mid-1980s and early 1990s; by 1998, seven other agencies had established EPSCoR or EPSCoR-like programs. […] On April 15, 2011, the President signed into law the Department of Defense and Full-Year Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10). The act provides, among other things, funding for the NSF through the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Act, 2011. P.L. 112-10 provides a total of $6,859.9 million for the NSF, a 1% reduction from the FY2010 enacted level. Included in the total for FY2011 is $146.9 million for EPSCoR. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Matthews, Christine M.
2011-06-17
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U.S. Response to the Global Threat of HIV/AIDS: Basic Facts [June 15, 2012]
"Over the past decade, the United States has recognized the human immunodeficiency virus and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) as a key foreign policy priority. Congressional authorization of the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) in 2003 brought unprecedented attention and funding to the epidemic and established a new and central role for donor governments in the fight against HIV/AIDS, particularly regarding the provision of AIDS treatment. The United States remains the largest single donor for global HIV/AIDS efforts in the world, providing over 50% of all government donor funds. In recent years, despite the continued challenge of HIV/AIDS around the world, international funding for HIV/AIDS-including U.S. assistance-has begun to level off. This report provides information on key components of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and the U.S. response to HIV/AIDS."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kendall, Alexandra E.
2012-06-15
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U.S. Response to the Global Threat of Tuberculosis: Basic Facts [June 15, 2012]
"The United States has increasingly recognized tuberculosis (TB) as a critical global health issue. In FY2008, Congress significantly increased its funding for global TB, providing $163.1 million to USAID [United States Agency for International Development] for its TB programs and directing the Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator (OGAC) at the State Department to spend at least $150 million on joint HIV/TB programs. Fighting TB is a key goal of President Barack Obama's Global Health Initiative (GHI) and global TB programs saw funding increases in FY2009, FY2010, and FY2012, with a slight decrease in FY2011, reflecting deficit reduction measures that affected most discretionary spending amounts. This report provides information on key components of the global TB epidemic and U.S. global TB efforts as the 112th Congress considers how the United States should continue to respond to the challenge of TB around the world."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kendall, Alexandra E.
2012-06-15
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U.S. International HIV/AIDS, Turberculosis, and Malaria Spending: FY2004-FY2008 [March 6, 2007]
"On January 28, 2003, during his State of the Union Address, President George Bush proposed that the United States spend $15 billion over five years to combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria through the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The President proposed that most of the spending on PEPFAR programs be concentrated in 15 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Of the $15 billion, the Plan proposed spending $9 billion on prevention, treatment, and care services in the 15 Focus Countries, where the Administration estimated 50% of all HIV-positive people lived. The President also proposed that $5 billion of the funds be spent on existing bilateral HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria programs and research, and $1 billion of PEFPAR funds be reserved for U.S. contributions to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (Global Fund). Between FY2004 and FY2008, PEPFAR aims to have supported care for 10 million people affected by HIV/AIDS, including children orphaned by AIDS; prevented 7 million new HIV infections; and supported efforts to provide antiretroviral medication (ARV) to 2 million HIV-infected people. […] The President's FY2008 budget request includes about $5.8 billion for global HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria efforts. The administration proposes that the bulk of the funds, about $5.0 billion, be provided through Foreign Operations appropriations. If Congress fully funds the President's FY2008 request, the United States will have exceeded the $15 billion originally sought for PEPFAR; some $19.2 billion would be spent on fighting the three diseases from FY2004 to FY2008. This report will review U.S. appropriations to the three diseases between FY2004 and FY2007, and will be updated to include further congressional actions in FY2008."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji
2007-03-06
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U.S. Initiatives to Promote Global Internet Freedom: Issues, Policy, and Technology [September 8, 2010]
"Modern means of communications, led by the Internet, provide a relatively inexpensive, open, easy-entry means of sharing ideas, information, pictures, and text around the world. In a political and human rights context, in closed societies when the more established, formal news media is denied access to or does not report on specified news events, the Internet has become an alternative source of media, and sometimes a means to organize politically. The openness and the freedom of expression allowed through blogs, social networks, video sharing sites, and other tools of today's communications technology has proven to be an unprecedented and often disruptive force in some closed societies. Governments that seek to maintain their authority and control the ideas and information their citizens receive are often caught in a dilemma: they feel that they need access to the Internet to participate in commerce in the global market and for economic growth and technological development, but fear that allowing open access to the Internet potentially weakens their control over their citizens. The ongoing situation of Google in China is representative of these issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-; Nakamura, Kennon H.; Addis, Casey L.
2010-09-08
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U.S. Global Climate Change Policy: Evolving Views on Cost, Competitiveness, and Comprehensiveness [Updated January 29, 2009]
This CRS report discuses the evolution of U.S. Global Climate Change Policy through the years. "U.S. policy toward global climate change evolved from a 'study only' to a more 'study and action' orientation in 1992 with ratification of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Convention committed developed countries to aim at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by the year 2000. The U.S. decision to ratify the UNFCCC reflected both the nonbinding nature of the accord and analyses that suggested that the United States could achieve the necessary reduction at little or no cost. Under the UNFCCC, developed countries were to adopt national plans and policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United States submitted such plans in 1992, 1994, 1997, 2002, and 2006." This report also discusses "The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) [that] has been the principal U.S. statutory response to the UNFCCC. In addition, the George H.W. Bush and Clinton Administrations encouraged voluntary reductions by industry through administrative initiatives, such as the EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency] various 'green' programs ['No Regrets']." The report also talks about the Kyoto Protocol, which laid out limits on emissions for developed nations. The Protocol was earlier referred as Senate Resolution 98 (S. Res. 98).
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parker, Larry B.; Blodgett, John E.
2009-01-29
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U.S. Public Diplomacy: Background and the 9/11 Commission Recommendations [Updated October 5, 2004]
"While the 9/11 terrorist attacks rallied unprecedented support abroad for the
United States initially, they also heightened the awareness among government officials and terrorism experts that a significant number of people, especially within Muslim populations, harbor enough hatred for America so as to become a pool for terrorists. Over time, it became clear that for the global war on terrorism to succeed sustained cooperation from around the world would be required. Even prior to the 2001 attacks, a number of decisions by the Bush Administration, including refusing to sign onto the Kyoto Treaty, the International Criminal Court, the Chemical Weapons Ban, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, damaged foreign opinion of the United States. After the decision to go to war with Iraq, much foreign opinion of the United States fell sharply, not only in the Arab and Muslim world, but even among some of America's closest allies. Some foreign policy and public diplomacy experts believe that using public diplomacy to provide clear and honest explanations of why those decisions were made could have prevented some of the loss of support in the war on terrorism. Many U.S. policymakers now recognize the importance of how America and its policies are perceived abroad. A former Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and both chairmen of the 9/11 Commission recently expressed the view that public diplomacy tools are at least as important in the war on terrorism as military tools and should be given equal status and increased funding. At the same time, some believe that there are limits to what public diplomacy can do when the problem is not foreign misperception of America, but rather disagreements with specific U.S. foreign policies. A major expansion of U.S. public diplomacy activities and funding cannot change that, they say."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2004-10-05
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U.S. and International Responses to the Global Spread of Avian Flu: Issues for Congress [Updated May 1, 2006]
"This report provides an up-to-date account of global H5N1-related human infections and deaths, outlines U.S. government global avian flu programs, and presents some foreign policy issues for Congress. This report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji
2006-05-01
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [October 18, 2012]
"Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. […] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present non-proliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the delicate balance between the maintenance of economic competitiveness and the preservation of national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2012-10-18
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U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress [May 5, 2014]
"North America is experiencing a boom in crude oil supply, primarily due to growing production in the Canadian oil sands and the recent expansion of shale oil production from the Bakken fields in North Dakota and Montana as well as the Eagle Ford and Permian Basins in Texas. Taken together, these new supplies are fundamentally changing the U.S. oil supply-demand balance. The United States now meets 66% of its crude oil demand from production in North America, displacing imports from overseas and positioning the United States to have excess oil and refined products supplies in some regions. The rapid expansion of North American oil production has led to significant challenges in transporting crudes efficiently and safely to domestic markets--principally refineries--using the nation's legacy pipeline infrastructure. In the face of continued uncertainty about the prospects for additional pipeline capacity, and as a quicker, more flexible alternative to new pipeline projects, North American crude oil producers are increasingly turning to rail as a means of transporting crude supplies to U.S. markets. According to rail industry officials, U.S. freight railroads are estimated to have carried 434,000 carloads of crude oil in 2013 (roughly equivalent to 300 million barrels), compared to 9,500 carloads in 2008. In 2014, 650,000 carloads of crude oil are expected to be carried. Crude imports by rail from Canada have increased more than 20-fold since 2011. The amount of oil transported by rail may also be influenced by a tight market for U.S.-built tankers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John; Parfomak, Paul W.; Ramseur, Jonathan L. . . .
2014-05-05
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U.S. Implementation of the Basel Capital Regulatory Framework [September 20, 2012]
"The Basel III international regulatory framework, which was produced in 2010 by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision at the Bank for International Settlements, is the latest in a series of evolving agreements among central banks and bank supervisory authorities to standardize bank capital requirements, among other measures. Capital serves as a cushion against sudden financial shocks (such as an unusually high occurrence of loan defaults), which can otherwise lead to insolvency. The Basel III regulatory reform package revises the definition of regulatory capital and increases capital holding requirements for banking organizations. The quantitative requirements and phase-in schedules for Basel III were approved by the 27-member jurisdictions and 44 central banks and supervisory authorities on September 12, 2010, and endorsed by the G20 leaders on November 12, 2010. Basel III recommends that banks satisfy these enhanced requirements by 2019. The Basel agreements are not treaties; individual countries can make modifications to suit their specific needs and priorities when implementing national bank capital requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Getter, Darryl E.
2012-09-20
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U.S. Natural Gas Exports: New Opportunities, Uncertain Outcomes [September 17, 2013]
"As estimates for the amount of U.S. natural gas resources have grown, so have the prospects of rising U.S. natural gas exports. The United States is expected to go from a net importer of natural gas to a net exporter by 2020. Projects to export liquefied natural gas (LNG) by tanker ship have been proposed--cumulatively accounting for about 41.4% of current gross U.S. natural gas production--and are at varying stages of regulatory approval. Projects require federal approval under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act (15 U.S.C. §717b), with the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission being the lead authorizing agencies. Pipeline exports, which accounted for 98% of all exports of U.S. produced natural gas in 2012, are also likely to continue rising."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.; Fergusson, Ian F.; Luther, Linda G. . . .
2013-09-17
